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FOOD INDUSTRIES 

An Elementary Text-Book on the Produc- 
tion and Manufacture of Staple Foods 



DESIGNED FOR USE IN HIGH 
SCHOOLS AND COLLEGES 



by 



HERMANN T. VULTE, Ph. D., F. C. S. 

Assistant Professor of Household Arts, Teachers College, Columbia University 



SADIE Bf VANDERBILT, B. S. 

Instructor in Household Arts, Teachers College, Columbia University 



SECOND EDITION 



E ASTON. PA.: 

THE CHEMICAL PUBLISHING CO. 

1916 






Copyright, 1914, by H. T. Vui/fE 
Copyright, 1916, by H. T. Vui/fE; 




SEB38 1916 



ICI.A437727 



PREFACE. 

After many years' experience in lecturing on the processes of 
food manufacture, the authors feel encouraged to submit the 
result of their labors as a guide to those who wish to study this 
most important and interesting subject. 

Certainly no branch of general manufacturing has undergone 
so many and such important changes in the past twenty-five years 
as the food industries. The public have largely benefited from 
these changes both in pocket and health. 

Unfortunately there still lingers in the minds of many, the 
impression that food stuffs have not the same dietetic value they 
possessed in the past, and that manipulation gives them an appear- 
ance of quality they do not possess. It is the universal experi- 
ence of the authors that manufacturers have not only improved 
the quality of their products in every possible way, but having 
nothing to conceal except from competitors, are most anxious to 
enlighten the interested consumer in the processes involved. 

Some mistakes have certainly been made in the past, but with 
no evil intent and largely through ignorance. As time passes 
these errors are corrected and it can confidently be stated that 
the public receives to-day better and cleaner material .at a lower 
price than formerly. The economic improvement is largely due 
to the general utilization of by-products, many of which do not 
appear in any list of foods. 

The following pages do not claim to deal with any industry 
from the purely technical standpoint, but aim to point out the 
most essential parts of each. A knowledge of chemistry and 
physics is not absolutely essential but is very helpful. 

As a pioneer book on the subject any suggestions furnished 
by teachers would be very gratefully received. 

The authors are greatly indebted to Dr. H. C. Humphrey, 
Dr. W. D. Home, Dr. W. E. J. Kirk, Mr. George S. Ward, Mr. 
Chauncey E. Foster, Mr. Ernst Mlihlhauser and Mr. R. E. 
Tomlinson for valuable suggestions in regard to the subject 
matter of this book and to Mrs. Ellen B. McGowan of Teachers 
College for reading the manuscript. They wish also to acknowl- 
edge the assistance of the many manufacturers who have thrown 
their plants open for inspection and who have allowed the use of 
photographs and cuts of machinery. 

September, 1914. July, 1916. 



CONTENTS. 



PAGE 

Introduction 1-4 

Chapter I — Food Principles 5—16 

Functions. Conservation of Energy. Elements in 
Foods. Food Principles. Examples of Each Group. 
Functions of Each Group. Carbohydrates. Classifi- . 
cation. Formation. Occurrence Important Proper- 
ties. Fats. Composition. Occurrence. Properties. 
Proteins. Composition. Classification. Occurrence. 
Properties. Importance of Water. 

Chapter II — Water 17-37 

' Classification of Natural Waters. Water Supply. 
Historical. Classification of Potable Water. Atmos- 
pheric. Surface Water. Subsoil Water. Pollution 
of Wells. Contamination of Public Supplies. Danger 
of Impure Water. Diseases from Water. Purifica- 
tion. Artificial Methods. Bacterial Action. Filtra- 
tion. Use of Sterilizing Agents. .Distillation. House- 
hold Methods. Boiling. Use of Domestic Filters. 
Judging a Water Supply. Ice Supply. Mineral 
Waters. Natural Mineral Springs. Occurrence. 
Medicinal Value. Artificial Mineral Waters. 

Chapter III — Cereals 38-49 

Biological Origin. Geographical Distribution. Use 
in our Country. Indian Corn or Maize. Origin. 
Cultivation. Varieties. Early Methods of Prepara- 
tion. Old Milling Methods. Samp. Hominy and 
Cornmeal. Modern Milling. Uses. Adulteration. 
Rice. Origin. Geographical Distribution. Composi- 
tion. Cultivation. Milling. Adulteration. Uses. 
Oats. Composition. Oatmeal. Milling. Adultera- 
tion. Barley. Origin. Cultivation. Composition. 
Uses. Mill Products. 

Chapter IV— The King of Cereals. Old Milling 

Processes 5°~^3 

Wheat. Origin. Geographical Distribution. Culti- 
vation. Structure of the Wheat Grain. Value of 
Wheat. Varieties. Old Milling Processes. Hand- 
stones. The Pestle and Mortar. The Quern. The 
Grist Mill. Disadvantages of Old Processes. 



CONTENTS V 

PAGE 

Chapter V— Modern Milling and Mill Products 64-78 

Dust Collectors. Fundamental Objects in Milling. 
Cleaning of the Wheat. Tempering. Separation of 
the Middlings. Reduction of the Middlings. Advan- 
tages of the New Process. Testing of Flour. Wheat 
Blends. Adulteration. Bleaching. Mill Products. 
Hard Wheat Flour. Soft Wheat Flour. Prepared 
Flour. Graham Flour. Entire Wheat Flour. Gluten 
Flour. Cereal Department. Rye. Composition. 
Uses. Adulteration. 

Chapter VI — Breakfast Foods and Coffee Substitutes. . 79-85 
Breakfast Foods. Classification. Uncooked. Partly 
Cooked. Cooked. Malted Preparations. Adultera- 
tion. Comparison of Old and New Cereals. Coffee 
Substitutes. 

Chapter VII- — Utilization of Flour. Breadmaking. . . . 86-112 
Primitive Breadmaking. Leavened Bread. Yeast. 
Leavening Effect of Yeast. Yeast Preparations. 
Home Brew. Brewer's Yeast. Compressed Yeast 
Cake. Dried Yeast. Salt Rising. Object in Bread- 
making. Steps in Breadmaking. Fermentation. 
Straight or Off-Hand Dough. Ferment and Dough. 
Sponge and Dough. Baking. Cooling. A Modern 
Bread Factory. Souring and Its Prevention. Adul- 
teration. Losses in Fermentation. Aerated Bread. 
The Cracker or Biscuit Industry. Macaroni. 

Chapter VIII — Leavening Agents 1 13-122 

Advantages and Disadvantages of Yeast. Chemical 
Agents. Baking Powders. Tartrate Powder. Cal- 
cium Phosphate Powders. Sodium Phosphate Pow- 
ders. Alum Phosphate Powders. Ammonia Powders. 
Cream of Tartar. Tartaric Acid. Acid Phosphate 
of Lime. Bicarbonate of Soda. LeBlanc Method. 
Solvay Process. Niagara Process. 

Chapter IX — Starch and Allied Industries 123-135 

Starch. Composition and Formation. Physical 
Characteristics. Properties. Uses. Source of Supply. 
Potato Starch. Extraction. Processes in Manufac- 



VI CONTENTS 

PAGE 
ture. Tapioca. Corn Products Industry. Processes 
in Manufacture. By-products and Their Uses. Dex- 
trins. Corn Syrup or Glucose. Processes in Manu- 
facture. 

Chapter X — The Sugar Industry 136-158 

Source. History of the Sugar Cane. History of the 
Sugar Beet. Comparison of Cane and Beet Sugar. 
Properties of Sugar. The Cane Sugar Industry. 
Growth of the Cane. Production of Raw Cane 
1 Sugar. The Beet Sugar Industry. Beet Culture. 

Production of Raw Beet Sugar. Refining of Raw 
Sugar. Granulated Sugar. Block Sugar. Powdered 
Sugar. Utilization of the By-products. Yellow 
Sugar. Maple Sugar. Date-palm Sugar. Sorghum. 
Cane Syrup. Adulteration. 

Chapter XI — Fruits, Vegetables and Nuts 159-168 

Importance in the Diet. Definition and Classifica- 
tion. Composition. Cultivation. Handling on the 
Farm. Transportation and Storage. Marketing. 
Candied Fruit. Jams, Jellies, Marmalade, Fruit 
Butter. Nuts. Composition. Digestibility. Nut 
Products. 

Chapter XII — Alcoholic Beverages 169-180 

Classification. Historical. Fermentation. The Brew- 
ing of Beer. Raw Material. Processes in Manu- 
facture. Composition of Beer. Adulteration. Sub- 
stitution. Kinds of Beer. 

Chapter XIII — Alcoholic Beverages (Continued) 181-191 

The Wine Industry. Processes in the Manufacture. 
Champagne. Sophisticated Wines. Adulteration. 
By-products. Distilled Liquors. Brandy. Rum. 
Whiskey. Liquers. Cordials. Gin. Cider. Vine- 
gar. Koumiss. 

Chapter XIV — Fats 192-204 

Extraction. Purification. Butter. Composition. 
Processes in Butter-making. Renovated Butter. 
Oleomargarine. Olive Oil. Cottonseed Oil. Peanut 
Oil. Coconut Oil. 



CONTENTS Vll 

PAGE 

Chapter XV — Animal Foods 205-223 

Meat. The Physical Structure and Chemical Con- 
stitution. Meat Inspection. Diseases of Animals. 
Reasons for Cooking Meat. Changes in Cooking. 
Beef Extracts. Beef Juices. Internal Organs. Fish. 
Shellfish. Oysters. Clams. Scallops. Mussels. 
Lobsters. Crabs. Poultry. Eggs. 

Chapter XVI — The Packing House 224-232 

Historical. Growth and Breadth of the Industry. 
Processes in the Packing House. Inspection and 
Slaughtering. Use of By-products. Hides. Fat. 
The Feet. Bone Products. Tankage. Blood. Mix- 
ing Fertilizers. Glue and Gelatin. Canning of 
Meat. Beef Extracts. Sausages. Minor Products. 

Chapter XVII— Milk 233-246 

Source. Composition. Importance of the Milk 
Supply. Diseases from Milk. Necessity for Clean- 
liness. Safeguarding the Milk Supply. Our Duty 
to the Producer. Testing of Milk. Sterilization. 
Pasteurization. Certified Milk. Modified Milk. 

Chapter XVIII— Milk Products 247-258 

Condensed Milk. Evaporated Milk. Concentrated 
Milk. Milk Powders. Market Cream. Ice Cream. 
By-products of the Butter Industry. Skim Milk. 
Dried Casein. Milk Sugar. Buttermilk. Artificially 
Soured Milk. Cheese. Historical. Composition. 
Cheesemaking. Adulteration. 

Chapter XIX — Preservation of Foods 259-270 

Classification. Drying. Cooling. Sterilization and 
Exclusion of Air. Sugaring. Salting. Smoking. 
Use of Fats and Oils. Use of Spices. Alcohol. 
Use of Preservatives. Artificial Sweetening. Arti- 
ficial Coloring. 

Chapter XX — The Canning Industry 271-278 

Historical. Process. Success of Canning. Meat 
Products. Containers. Advantages and Disadvan- 
tages of Glass. Advantages and Disadvantages of 
Tin. Adulteration. 



Vlll CONTENTS 

PAGE 

Chapter XXI — Tea', Coffee and Cocoa , 279-300 

Historical. Cultivation of the Tea Plant. Classifica- 
tion. Processes in Manufacture. Black Tea. Green 
Tea. Adulteration. Tea as a Beverage. General 
Rules for Tea-making. Composition of the Beverage. 
Coffee. Historical. The Coffee Plant. Cultivation. 
Processes in Manufacture. Adulteration. Coffee as 
a Beverage. Coffee Extracts. Cocoa. Historical. 
Cultivation. Processes in Manufacture. Chocolate. 
Adulteration. As a Beverage. Physiological Effect 
of Tea, Coffee and Cocoa. 

Chapter- XXII — Spices and Condiments 301-313 

Salt. Pepper. Mustard. Curry Powder. Vinegar. 
Spices. Uses. Spices as Preservatives. Cinnamon 
and Cassia. Cloves. Allspice. Nutmeg and Mace. 
Ginger. Adulteration. Vanilla and Lemon Extracts. 

Bibliography 314-321 

Index 3 2 3-327 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS, 

PAGE 

Sedimentation Basins .25 

Section of an English Filter Bed 26 

Cleaning London Filter Beds 27 

Interior of the East Albany, N. Y., Filter Plant 29 

Distillation Apparatus 30 

The Berkefeld Filter 31 

Carbonic Acid Gas Generator 35 

Longitudinal Section Through a Grain of Wheat 55 

Section Through Part of a Grain of Wheat 56 

Hand-stone 59 

The Mortar and Pestle 60 

Roughening Burr-Stones 62 

Dust Collectors .* 65 

Roller Mills 68 

Middling Purifier 69 

The Modern Sieve or Bolter 70 

Bolting Reel 71 

Bread Made from Entire Wheat, Patent and Graham Flours 76 

Flour Sifter and Blender 99 

Dough Mixing Machine 100 

Dough Dividing Machine 101 

Front View of Dough Divider 102 

Machine for Wrapping Bread 103 

Bread After Leaving Wrapping Machine 104 

Baking Floor Showing Ovens 105 

Flour Bolter, Blender and Automatic Weigher 106 

Sweet Cracker Machine 106 

Sheds and Board for Drying Tapioca 126 

Steeped Corn Running to Crushers 128 

Crushers 129 

Separators 130 

Hydraulic Presses for Oil 130 

Dripping Boxes 132 

Emptying Starch from Drip Boxes 133 

Cane Mill, Philippines 139 

Cane Crushers, Hawaii 140 

Open Pan Evaporators, Philippines 141 

Vacuum Pans, Hawaii 142 

Multiple-effect Evaporating Apparatus 143 

Vacuum Strike Pan ■ 144 

Centrifugal Machines 145 

The Wild Beet 146 



ILLUSTRATIONS 



PAGE 

The Sugar Beet of To-day 147 

Distribution of Beet Sugar Factories 148 

The Circular Diffusion Battery 151 

Filter Bags 154 

Roller Mill for Grinding Barley Malt 174 

Filter Presses for Clarifying Wort 175 

Copper Boilers 1 76 

Filter Presses for Clarifying Beer before Bottling 178 

Early Experiment in Cream Separator 195 

Improved DeLaval Cream Separator 196 

Chilling Butterine 200 

Beef Viscera Inspection 226 

Lard Boiling 228 

Cattle, Burnside Farm, N. Y 233 

Bacterial Tests of Creamery Milk 237 

Bacterial Tests of Creamery Milk 238 

Pasteurization of Milk 243 

Holding Tanks 243 

Milk Coolers , 244 

Milk Bottling Machine 244 

Condensed Milk Industry 248 

The Sausage Smoke House 266 

Stock Boilers 273 

Sterilizing Process 274 

Can Closing Machines 277 

The Tea Plant 280 

Young Shoot of Tea Plant 282 

Withering Tea Leaves ' 283 

Rolling Tea Leaves 284 

Coffee Bean 288 

Coffee Cultivation and Industry in Brazil 290 

Coffee Roasting Room 292 

Pods and Leaves 295 

Section of Cocoa Fruit 296 

Grinding Room 298 

Pepper Plantation near Singapore 303 

Rolling Cinnamon Bark into Quills 307 

Clove Tree of Zanzibar 309 

Digging and Peeling Ginger in the Fields 310 



INTRODUCTION. 



In regard to the production and manufacture of our food 
material, there is a prevalent ignorance among women to-day 
which is in marked contrast to the knowledge possessed on this 
subject by the old-fashioned housekeeper. The reason for this 
can readily be seen, for in the early days, and in fact until com- 
paratively recent years, agriculture was very near the home and 
in the majority of cases the housewife herself was the manufac- 
turer. The spinning-wheel now so highly prized as a memento 
of the olden times, testifies to the fact that our grandmothers 
knew full well how to manufacture the clothing for their fami- 
lies. A closer look at these same days will show that they knew 
equally well how to prepare many food products and materials 
needed for household work. 

As civilization has advanced the tendency toward the massing 
together of our population in towns and cities has gradually 
changed greatly the home life of the people. Agriculture no 
longer is carried on in proximity to the home, and large com- 
mercial establishments remote from the household now do the 
work that at one time was the daily duty of the housewife. 
Many such examples can be found. In our later study of the 
history of milling, we will find that among all primitive people 
the woman was the miller, grinding each day the grain she was 
to make into bread; the preparation of the meal and breadmaking 
were practically one operation. Later on in the history of the 
human family, the making of meal and flour passed into the 
hands of the village miller, who ground the grain for the pro- 
ducers of his neighborhood, who in turn bought their sack of 
flour directly from him. As this business grew in size it grad- 
ually was moved further and further from the home, until the 
average housekeeper of to-day knows little of the mighty indus- 
try that is preparing the flour for her use. More and more each 
year, we find that the making of this flour into bread is in like 
manner passing into the hands of the modern manufacturer of 
bread. The old-time home-made loaf of bread is still found in 
isolated districts but seldom in city life. In the preparation of 



2 FOOD INDUSTRIES 

alcoholic beverages we again find this marked change. As late 
as our own colonial days, every housewife knew how to prepare 
beer and wines and her reputation as a homekeeper was judged 
as much by the beer that she could brew, as by the loaf of bread 
that she could bake. The curing of meat and fish by salting and 
smoking, the drying of fruits and vegetables are now known only 
to the housekeeper in isolated sections of our country, for the 
city woman must depend on the manufacturer's supply. Even 
the preservation of our food by canning is rapidly passing into 
the hands of the canning industry. 

These marked changes in our food preparation have brought 
new types of foods on the market and have greatly increased the 
variety. To the modern housekeeper they have brought both 
advantages and disadvantages. 

Advantages. — I. There has been a great lessening of household 
drudgery, giving an opportunity for broader interests and for 
more recreation than was known to our grandmothers. 

II. In the majority of cases better products can be obtained 
for the processes used by the housekeeper were necessarily very 
crude. Manufacturers for financial reasons must give much 
study to their particular industry and new and better methods 
are constantly being sought. This has led to improved sanitary 
conditions and a standardizing of the quality of the product. 

III. In recent years there has been a great extension of the 
open season; fresh fruits and vegetables are now quite common 
in the city markets the year round. The variety of food has been 
also increased by canning. 

IV. Great improvements have taken place in the science of 
agriculture leading gradually to the raising not only of better 
products but to the increase in the area of production, of prod- 
ucts which formerly were obtainable only from a limited section, 
such as oranges and other fruits, sugar from the beet and wines. 

V. New and improved methods of food preservation have been 
largely studied, such as canning and the use of cold storage. 

VI. The co-operation with scientists has led to protection 
against certain diseases, such as tuberculosis from meat and milk, 
typhoid from the oyster, trichina from pork, etc. 



FOOD INDUSTRIES 3 

VII. Articles of food are now put up in better and more sani- 
tary packages and better packing material is being used. 

Disadvantages. — I. The cost of living has been greatly in- 
creased. 

a. Foods may be roughly divided into permanent and perish- 
able material. Among the permanent foods, which include sugar 
and flour the cost has decreased. The great advance in price of 
our food material is found entirely in the perishable foods. Such 
material is now being brought from a long distance, thus adding 
cost of freight and preservation during transportation. The 
many hands through which food material must pass also increases 
the cost. 

b. The open market has led to expensive tastes. Luxuries look 
attractive and the cost is great where such products have been 
brought from a distance. 

II. The women of our country represent about 90 per cent, 
of the retail buyers in food products. A lack of knowledge and 
many times of interest have led to great deception on the part of 
some manufacturers. 

a. Until the Pure Food Law went into effect, there was a great 
amount of adulterated material put on the market and preserva- 
tives were most freely used. 

b. The substitution of cheaper products with intent to deceive 
the purchaser was also a common practice. Butter substitutes 
were sold as butter, cottonseed oil as olive oil, apple jelly as 
currant, canned herring as sardines, potted veal for chicken, and 
the like. 

c. Following these evils there gradually crept in the custom of 
printing misleading statements on the outside wrappers as to the 
effect and food value of the contents. Much advertising was 
done also giving these false impressions. 

Had the modern housekeeper possessed the knowledge of her 
grandmother as to the production and manufacture of food ma- 
terial she was buying, manufacturers would not have found it 
advantageous to practice such frauds for so long a period. 

The United States Government has for many years been study- 



4 FOOD INDUSTRIES 

ing and experimenting along these lines, and bulletins have been 
printed which can be procured free or at a very small cost, yet 
comparatively few housekeepers seek such information. This 
lack of knowledge and interest led the faculty of the School of 
Practical Arts, Columbia University, to introduce many years 
ago, into its domestic science course, a study of the manufacture 
of food material, hoping that a more extended knowledge of this 
subject would lead to greater interest and more intelligent buying 
on the part of the modern housekeeper. 

In connection with the following course of lectures, excursions 
should be taken as frequently as possible to manufacturing estab- 
lishments, where processes and methods can be studied and sani- 
tary conditions noted. Wherever such excursions are not prac- 
tical, illustrative material and demonstrations should be most 
freely used, accompanied whenever possible by the use of the 
stereopticon and moving picture slides. 



CHAPTER I. 



FOOD PRINCIPLES. 

Food principles, sometimes referred to as food stuffs, are 
types of chemical compounds differing in exact composition but 
of equal energy value. They are reducible to similar forms by 
the process of digestion. 

Functions. — Food has two important functions : first, to supply 
tissue for the growth of the young child, and since life's pro- 
cesses are continually breaking down this body structure, to 
supply needed material for its repair; second, to furnish the or- 
ganism with fuel which in combustion gives power to carry on 
life's activities ; the heat produced is utilized to maintain the tem- 
perature necessary to the organism. 

Conservation of Energy. — Locked up in the resources of nature 
is a vast wealth of energy. Man has only to seize this energy and 
convert it into a form which he needs. Thus we find wood, coal, 
petroleum and natural gas being utilized to give heat and light. 
Should the energy be contained in a compound which can be 
finally assimilated by the human body he can accept it as a food. 

Elements in Food. — Nature does not always give us these 
foods in a simple state ; most of them are quite complex in their 
nature. When analyzed, however, it has been found that even 
the complicated forms are composed of the most common ele- 
ments, such as carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, with a small 
amount of sulphur, phosphorus, iron, calcium, etc. 

Food Principles. — Although these elements may be differently 
combined, they can be divided into groups which are called the 
four food principles or food stuffs : 

1. Carbohydrates composed of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. 

2. Fats composed of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. 

3. Protein composed of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, 

sulphur, generally phosphorus, sometimes iron, etc. 

4. Mineral matter, . such as sodium, potassium, calcium, mag- 

nesium, iron, sulphur, phosphorus, chlorine, and minute 
quantities of iodine, fluorine and silicon. 



6 FOOD INDUSTRIES 

Water formerly regarded as a food principle, although having 
peculiar and intimate relations with the four accepted types, 
does not undergo metabolism and hence is excluded. 

Examples of Each Group. — Among the carbohydrates we find 
well-known foods, such as starch, sugar, cereals and vegetables. 
Fats may appear in different forms, such as liquids, semi-solids 
and solids, represented by olive oil, butter and suet. Protein in 
its most concentrated form occurs in the white of egg, large 
amounts being also found in meat, fish, cheese, eggs and milk. 
Usually we look to animal life for our protein supply, although it 
occurs also in the vegetable kingdom, relatively large amounts be- 
ing found in beans, cottonseed meal, peas, lentils and smaller 
amounts in wheat, maize and other cereals. The vegetable king- 
dom supplies mankind with most of his carbohydrate food, 
animal carbohydrate occurring only in such forms as milk-sugar, 
glycogen and glucose. Fat occurs frequently in both animal and 
vegetable life. 

Function of Each Group. — Although all of the food principles 
have nutritive value each group has its own special function. 
This work may be: first, directly building tissue; second, giving 
energy and heat; third, making it possible for other groups to 
carry out their special function. The great work of building 
tissue and gradually repairing it as it wears away can be per- 
formed by protein and inorganic matter, water always assisting 
in this work. The other food principles cannot build tissue ; 
therefore protein, mineral matter and water are absolutely essen- 
tial to life. None of the three is alone sufficient. The work of 
producing energy is done by all the food principles, although only 
in a very limited sense by mineral matter. 
Tissue Builders: 

Protein. 

Mineral matter. 
Energy Producers : 

Protein. 

Carbohydrate. 

Fat. 



FOOD INDUSTRIES 7 

Protein alone is able to fulfil both of these functions of foods ; 
for this reason it is of vast importance in the diet. Without 
protein life is impossible for any length of time for the wear and 
tear on the tissue must be replaced. With protein assisted by 
water life can be maintained for some time. 
CARBOHYDRATES. 
In order to obtain the necessary amount of heat and muscular 
energy it is necessary to supply the body with fuel. This work 
is done largely by the carbohydrates, a group containing carbon, 
hydrogen and oxygen. The hydrogen and oxygen occur in the 
same proportion as in water, and the carbon as six or some mul- 
tiple of six in most of the forms utilized as human food. The 
carbohydrates owe their value as a fuel very largely to the carbon 
which on oxidation gives off much heat energy. They are found 
in a large variety of foods : flour, meal, cereals, sugar, starch, 
vegetables and fruits. Sometimes they appear in simple forms 
which can easily be made use of by the organism ; at other times 
so complicated is the molecule, that only after many chemical 
changes do they assume a form simple enough to pass through 
the membrane of the intestines. From the standpoint of nutri- 
tion the alimentary canal must be looked upon as outside the 
body, the lining of this canal being the outer coating of the body 
proper. All foods therefore must be reduced to chemical com- 
pounds which are capable of passing through the walls of the 
intestines before assimilation. The most important properties 
for assimilation are solubility and osmotic power. Those carbo- 
hydrates which cannot be reduced to forms having these proper- 
ties cannot be utilized as food. 
Classification. — 

Monosaccharids or Simple Sugars, C 6 H 12 6 . 

Glucose or grape sugar, formerly called dextrose. 

Fructose or fruit sugar, formerly called levulose. 

Galactose. 
Disaccharids or Double Sugars, C 12 H 22 la . 

Sucrose or sugar. 

Maltose. 

Lactose or milk sugar. 



8 FOOD INDUSTRIES 

Polysaccharids or Complex Sugars, (C 6 H 10 O 5 )„ . 
Cellulose. 
Starch. 
Dextrin. 
Glycogen. 
Formation of Carbohydrates. — The monosaccharides or simple 
sugars are built up in the leaf of the plant by the absorption of 
the carbon dioxide and water of the atmosphere. With the 
assistance of the chlorophyll cells of green plants and the energy 
of the sun's rays, the following compounds are formed in the 
leaf : 

H 2 + C0 2 — HCHO + 2 
6HCHO — C 6 H 12 6 . 
Glucose, C 6 H 12 6 , is soluble and diffusible so it can pass from 
one part of the plant to another. When this material is to be 
stored as reserve food for the plant, water is withdrawn and 
starch, an insoluble and colloidal compound, is formed: 

»0,H u O a ^ (C 6 H 10 O 5 )« + H 2 0. 

Occurence. — Glucose is an important simple sugar widely dis- 
tributed in nature and is found to a great extent in the same 
plants as contain sucrose. Grapes contain about 20 per cent., 
hence the common name grape sugar. It occurs also in sweet 
corn and most of the garden vegetables and fruits. In animal 
life it occurs in small quantities in the blood, 0.1 per cent., where 
it is constantly being burned to produce energy. Where the body 
has more or less lost the power to burn glucose as in diabetes, 
it accumulates and is finally eliminated by the kidneys. 

Fructose is usually found associated with glucose. It occurs 
in the juices of sweet fruits, the largest amount being found in 
honey. 

Galactose is not found in nature. It occurs principally in the 
splitting of lactose or milk-sugar during the process of digestion. 

Sucrose is the most important of the sugars as it is the ordi- 
nary crystallized sugar of commerce. 'It is found widely dis- 
tributed in the vegetable kingdom in the fruit and juices of a 
variety of plants, many times occurring in relatively large 



FOOD INDUSTRIES 9 

amounts as in the pineapple, strawberry and carrot. Sucrose is 
extracted commercially from the sugar cane, the sugar beet, the 
sorghum cane, the date palm and the sugar maple. 

Maltose never occurs in nature in large quantities. It is the 
carbohydrate which is formed from starch during the germina- 
tion of seeds. As a commercial product it plays an important 
part in the brewing industry, in the so-called malted breakfast 
foods and in malted milk. 

Lactose occurs in the milk of all mammals usually from 3 to 
7 per cent, and is the most abundant of the animal carbohydrates. 

Cellulose or crude fiber constitutes the framework of all vege- 
table tissue, so we find it widely distributed throughout the 
vegetable kingdom. It occurs in wood, linen, cotton, hemp, flax 
and paper. Much of our food, such as cereals, vegetables and 
fruit contain cellulose, but as it cannot be made soluble in the 
organism it has no food value. Other forms of life can utilize 
it, however, and we find it serving as food for insects and bacteria. 

Starch as it is found in nature is also insoluble and indiffusible, 
hut here we find a carbohydrate which can be changed to a 
simpler form within the alimentary canal. It is found largely 
in vegetables amd cereals where it is stored as food for the plant. 

Dextrin or, as it is erroneously called gum, is formed from 
starch by the process of hydrolysis. In nature it occurs in ger- 
minating cereals. 

Glycogen, often spoken of as the animal starch, although it 
more closely resembles dextrin, is found to the largest extent 
in shell-fish, especially the scallop. It is also abundant in the 
muscle and liver of both higher and lower animals, where it is 
stored and ultimately utilized as a source of muscular energy. 
In plants glycogen has a restricted distribution, although it occurs 
abundantly in certain fungi to the extent of 30 per cent, of the 
dry weight. 

Important Properties. — Among the most important properties 
of the carbohydrates are found solubility, diffusibility, hydrolysis, 
crystallization and action on polarized light. 



IO FOOD INDUSTRIES 

Hydrolysis. — This important property occurs repeatedly in the 
changing of complicated forms of food material, to such simple 
forms that they can be utilized by the organism. It has been 
defined by Alexander Smith as "A double decomposition involv- 
ing water" and by other well-known chemists as "A simplification 
with absorption of water." Changes taking place during hydroly- 
sis are always brought about by catalytic agents. These agents 
may be heat, dilute acid, finely divided metal, enzyme action, etc. 
The action always takes place in the presence of water, both 
the water molecule and the complex carbohydrate molecule break- 
ing down to form a new carbohydrate molecule in which the 
hydrogen and oxygen appear in the proportion as in water. 

2C 6 H 10 O 5 + H 2 ^ C 12 H 22 O n , 
Starch Maltose 

C„H M O u -f H 2 ^ 2C 6 H ]2 6 . 
Maltose Glucose 

Sucrose is a double sugar. When it breaks down under the 

influence of a catalytic agent it yields two simple sugars as 

C 12 H 22 O n + H 2 ^ C 6 H 12 6 glucose, 
C 6 H 12 6 fructose. 

A special name has been given to these two molecules, glucose 
and fructose. They are called invert sugar. This name has been 
given to them on account of their peculiar behavior toward polar- 
ized light. Before hydrolysis a sugar solution will rotate the 
plane of polarized light to the right, after hydrolysis to the left, 
hence the name invert sugar and the term inversion. 

Hydrolysis also occurs in the digestion of fats and proteins. 

FATS. 
Composition. — True fats are composed of the elements carbon, 
hydrogen and oxygen. Little was known of how these elements 
were combined in the formation of fats, until the investigation 
by Chevreul in the early part of the nineteenth century. He dis- 
covered that they were essentially salt-like bodies formed to- 
gether with water by the combination of an acid and a base. 
With the exception of some of the waxes the base is always the 
same, the triatomic alcohol glycerin, C 3 H 5 (OH) 3 . The acid 



FOOD INDUSTRIES II 

usually belongs to a series termed fatty acids and varies accord- 
ing to the fat. The three most common fatty acids are oleic, 
palmitic and stearic acid. Unless a fat or oil contains both gly- 
cerin and a fatty acid, it is not a true fat. 

C 3 H 5 (OH) 3 + 3 C n H S3 COOH ^ C 3 H 5 (C 18 H 33 2 ) 3 + 3 H 2 0, 
Glycerin Oleic acid. Olein Water 

C s H 5 (OH) 3 + 3 C ]5 H 31 COOH ^ C 3 H 5 (C 16 H 31 2 ) 3 + 3H 2 0, 
Glycerin Palmitic acid Palmitin Water 

C 3 H 5 (OH) 3 + 3 C 17 H 35 COOH ^ C 3 H 5 (C 18 H 35 2 )a + 3H 2 0. 
Glycerin Stearic acid Stearin Water 

Palmitic and stearic acids belong to the saturated class and 
cannot combine with any other elements except by substitution. 
Oleic acid is the most familiar example of the unsaturated class 
possessing the power of directly combining with other elements. 
This fact has an important bearing in the absorption of oxygen 
by some fats, giving rise to the phenomenon of drying. In re- 
cent years the addition of two or more hydrogen atoms to various 
unsaturated groups, thereby producing saturated forms, has be- 
come a great industry. 

Two. or more of these fatty acids are generally present in all 
fats — mixed, or chemically combined. They differ in their 
physical nature. Olein is liquid at ordinary temperature and 
whenever this body predominates the fat appears in the liquid 
form as in olive oil. Palmitin is semi-solid; it predominates in 
butter and lard and is the largest part of the human fat. When- 
ever stearin is present in a relatively large amount, the fat is a 
solid as in suet and tallow. 

Occurrence. — Fats are found widely distributed throughout 
both the animal and vegetable kingdoms. In plants the percent- 
age varies to a great extent, approximately I per cent, being 
found in barley and 67 per cent, in Brazil nuts. Fat usually 
occurs in inverse ratio to the starch. It is often difficult to 
extract on account of the resistant character of the tissue. In 
animal life fats are present in all tissues and organs and in all 
fluids with the exception of the normal urine. Large quantities 
are found in the abdominal cavity surrounding the kidneys and 



12 FOOD INDUSTRIES 

beneath the skin of marine animals or those living in cold cli- 
mates. Being present often in large quantities it is very easy 
to extract. 

Properties. — The most important properties are solubility, 
change of state, crystallization, drying and non-drying, emulsifi- 
cation and saponification. 

Solubility. — Fats are soluble in gasoline, ether, chloroform, and 
carbon disulphide. These solvents may be used for cleansing 
purposes, for extraction and removal of grease stains. 

Change of State. — All fats have a definite melting point. They 
exist as liquids, semi-solids and solids according to the tempera- 
ture. This property is taken advantage of in the extraction of 
fats and as a means of identification. 

Crystallization. — All fats are highly crystalline. They form 
definite crystals and can be readily identified under a microscope. 
This has been of great value in detecting adulteration. 

Drying and Non-drying. — Certain oils are oxidized when ex- 
posed to. the air and are converted into thick gummy masses. 
These drying oils, such as linseed, when applied in thin layers on 
a surface form a dry, hard, transparent film. They are used 
extensively in paints and varnishes. Some oils, such as cotton- 
seed, possess this property to a limited extent, while others similar 
to olive oil show no sign of drying even when exposed to the air 
for an indefinite period. 

Bmulsification. — Fats can be broken up- in small globules by 
mechanical agitation. If these globules can be coated with a sub- 
stance which will prevent them from running together, they will 
remain in suspension. Egg albumin is very frequently the agent 
used in making an emulsion; example — mayonnaise dressing. 
This property is taken advantage of in soap-making and in the 
cleansing of fatty material by means of soap. It always plays an 
important part in the early stage of the digestion of fats. 

Saponification. — The hydrolytic process of splitting a fat into 
its constituents, fatty acid and glycerin, is termed saponification. 
It may be brought about by agents, such as heat, enzymes, alkali 
or acid. Saponification always occurs in the digestion of fats and 
in the process of soap-making. 



FOOD INDUSTRIES 



13 



PROTEINS. 

Composition. — The proteins are very complex compounds 
differing greatly in composition and properties, but all are of 
high molecular weight. They are composed of carbon, hydrogen, 
oxygen, nitrogen, sulphur usually phosphorus, sometimes iron, 
lime, etc. As nitrogen compounds they play an important part 
in human nutrition, for they are essential to the growth of the 
living cells which make up the tissue. 

Classification. — The following is the classification recommended 
by the American Physiological Society and the American So- 
ciety of Biological Chemists. 

f Albumins 
Globulins 
Glutelins 
f Simple • ■ • - l Alcohol solubles 
Albuminoids 
Histones 
Protamines 



Proteins 1 Conjugated 



Non-protein 



Derived 



( Extractives 

{ Amides 

L Amino-acids 



Nucleoproteins 
Glycoproteins • 
Phosphoproteins 
Haemoglobins 
Lecithoproteins 



Primary 



^ Secondary 



f Proteans 

I Meta proteins 

1 Coagulated proteins 

Proteoses 
J Peptones 
[ Peptids 



Occurrence. — Albumin is found in both plant and animal life. 
It occurs most abundantly in the white of egg, where it coagu- 
lates on heating in boiling water and becomes a hard white 
mass. It appears in milk as lact-albumin, in egg as ov-albumin, 
in muscle and blood as serum albumin. A small proportion of the 
protein of plant life occurs as albumin. 



14 FOOD INDUSTRIES 

Globulin is very similar to albumin, but differs from it in solu- 
bility. It occurs in both plant and animal life, but is far more 
abundant and wide-spread in plant tissue. Globulin is found in 
large proportion in hemp-seed, flax-seed, and in the seeds of the 
legumes. Animal globulin occurs in muscle and blood. 

Glutelins are nitrogenous compounds found in the cereals. 
The most familiar example is the glutenin of wheat. Alcohol 
solubles is a form of protein also found in cereals. The prin- 
cipal one is the gliadin of wheat. Glutenin and gliadin in the 
presence of water form the well-known substance gluten. 

Albuminoids occur in the skeleton of the body in the connec- 
tive tissues, bones, hair, nails, hoofs and horns. It is that form 
of protein which yields gelatin on cooking. 

Nucleo-proteins are complex proteins which are believed to be 
combinations of one or more protein molecules with nucleic acid. 
They are closely associated with the nuclei of cells in both plant 
and animal life and occur most abundantly in asparagus tips, 
the hearts of lettuce and internal organs, such as liver, heart, 
kidney and pancreas. In the cleavage of the molecule during 
digestion true nucleo-proteins are believed to yield uric acid. 

Glycoproteins are compounds of the protein molecule with a 
substance or substances containing a carbohydrate group other 
than a nucleic acid. 

Phospho-proteins are proteins closely combined with elements, 
such as phosphorus and sulphur. The most familiar examples 
are the caseinogen of milk and the vitellin of egg. 

Haemoglobins are compounds of the protein molecule with 
hematin or a similar substance. Lecithoproteins are nitrogenous 
bodies combined with a fat radical. 

Protein Hydrolysis. — As in the carbohydrates protein must 
undergo hydrolysis or a simplification before such compounds 
can be assimilated by the body. This change involves a breaking 
down of the protein molecule and the taking up of the elements 
of water under the influence of agents, such as heat, dilute acids 
or alkalis and enzyme action. The products formed are known 
as derived proteins. Primary derived proteins are those which 



FOOD INDUSTRIES . 1 5 

have been only slightly modified, secondary derived forms those 
having been more completely acted upon by the hydrolytic agent. 
In this way are formed coagulated proteins, meta-proteins, pro- 
teoses, peptones and peptids. Peptones for a long period were 
believed to be the final product of enzyme action in digestion, but 
that action is now believed to be continued to the amino-acid. 

Extractives. — The name extractives has been given to a body 
of substances which can be removed from meat and other tis- 
sues by the action of cold water. The most important are creatin 
and creatinin of muscle tissue. Although nitrogen compounds, 
they are not capable of building tissue and it is believed that 
they have little or no food value. 

Properties. — Among the more important properties of the pro- 
teins are solubility, curdling, coagulation and clotting. 

Solubility. — Albumin is soluble in cold water; gelatin swells 
and all other proteins are insoluble. All proteins are soluble in 
dilute sodium chloride, and with the exception of albumin, all are 
insoluble in saturated sodium chloride. All proteins are insoluble 
in saturated solutions of ammonium sulphate. 

Curdling. — Curdling is a change which occurs in connection 
with conjugated proteins, such as the caseinogen of milk. It is 
the precipitation of a soluble matter by means of an acid, without 
serious chemical change. 

Coagulation. — Albumins and globulins are made insoluble by 
heating to about 158 F. In concentrated solution, such as the 
white of egg, solidification is caused throughout the mass. This 
is a chemical change always brought about by (1) heat some- 
times with the aid of dilute acid or (2) the action of alcohol. 

Clotting. — The term clotting is applied to conjugated proteins, 
when the molecule is split by means of an enzyme into two 
simpler proteins, for example, — caseinogen under the action of 
rennet is split into casein and para or pseudo-nuclein. 

Importance of Water. — Although no longer regarded as a food 
principle, tissue building and in fact most of life's processes, 
cannot go on without the presence of water. Blood is the great 
carrier of the system and here water is essential. It acts as an 



1 6 FOOD INDUSTRIES 

eliminator, cleansing the tissues and carrying away waste 
matter loitering there. Water acts as a chemical agent. It has 
the power of dissolving substances, is essential to hydrolysis and 
can therefore assist in bringing about such chemical changes that 
otherwise useless food can eventually become part of the living 
organism. A no less important function is temperature control. 
Its services to all forms of life cannot be over-estimated. Next 
to the atmosphere we breathe it is the most essential thing in life. 



CHAPTER II. 



WATER. 

In chemical language we speak of water as a compound con- 
taining the elements hydrogen and oxygen in the proportion of 
2 to i by volume and i to 8 by weight. Such a compound, 
however, is never found in nature and the term as repeatedly 
used "pure water" is generally accepted as meaning a water free 
from harmful ingredients, and which can therefore be utilized 
for drinking and other household purposes ; contaminated or pol- 
luted water contains material injurious to health. 

Classification of Natural Waters. — 



Atmospheric 



f Rain • 

<J Snow 

I 

L Fog • • 

f Sweet 



1 

! Contains very little dissolved solids but 

[ dust and gases of the atmosphere. 



Terrestrial 



[ Salt 



Surface-Cloudy, usually a large amount of 
suspended matter, minimum of dissolved. 

Underground — Clear, minimum of sus- 
pended matter, maximum of dissolved. 

Brines — Over 5 per cent, soluble salts. 
Sea water — 3.6 per cent, solids. 
Mineral — Excess of, or unusual mineral 
matter and gases. 

It is known as the universal solvent; there is scarcely a sub- 
stance existing which is not more or less soluble in water. Hard 
rock can be gradually worn away by its action, and glass, one of 
the hardest of known substances, will gradually dissolve. All 
natural waters are found therefore to contain foreign matter, 
gases and solid material of the atmosphere and earth, either dis- 
solved or in suspension. Sometimes these materials occur in 
small amounts, at other times in relatively large proportions. 
Such solutions frequently attack otherwise insoluble material 
limiting its use for domestic purposes. 

The principal uses for water in the household are for drinking, 
cooking, heating and cleansing purposes. There is a standard to 
estimate the purity for each. For detergent and cooking purposes, 



l8 FOOD INDUSTRIES 

the amount of mineral matter present plays an important part, 
while for drinking, organic matter received directly or indirectly 
from sewage or industrial waste constitutes the chief danger. A 
safe water supply should be reasonably free from objectionable 
mineral and organic matter. 

WATER SUPPLY. 

Historical. — Even in remote antiquity a high value seemed to 
have been placed on an abundant water supply, and a keen ap- 
preciation existed of the danger should such a supply become 
contaminated. Settlements were made and communities grew 
near the source of available water which many times was looked 
upon as a blessing bestowed by the gods. In districts where water 
was not abundant courses were constructed with much expendi- 
ture of time, money and labor to carry it from a distance where 
water was found to be pure and naturally plentiful. Such courses 
were built by the ancient Romans, where water could proceed by 
gravity from the distant mountains to the city where great reser- 
voirs were built for its storage. These reservoirs were still in 
use during the middle ages and the ruins to-day show how well 
they had been constructed. 

Methods of irrigation were used early in the history of the 
world, for reservoirs were known to have existed in Egypt 
before 2,000 B. C. They were utilized for the purpose of receiv- 
ing and storing the surplus water during the annual flood of the 
Nile, the stored water being used for irrigation during seasons 
when the river failed to reach the crops. 

Pumping as it exists to-day was unknown among the ancients, 
but curious devices were constructed for the elevation of water, 
the ruins of which can still be seen in some parts of the Old 
World. One of the greatest curiosities of Zurich is the pump 
invented and erected .by a tin-plate worker of that city. It con- 
sists of a hollow cylinder like a very large grindstone turning on 
a horizontal axis, and so constructed as to be partly plunged in a 
cistern of water. This cylinder is formed into a spiral canal by 
a plate coiled up within it like the main-spring of a watch in 
its box. 



FOOD INDUSTRIES 19 

Bucket lifts in different forms seemed to have been employed 
the world over from the remotest historical times. In oriental 
countries an earthen pot attached to a rope wound around a 
windlass was used. Another form was the scoop-wheel composed 
of a series of curved blades, terminating in a hollow axle into 
which they discharged the water caught by the revolution 
of the wheel. A series of buckets was sometimes arranged 
around a huge wheel which in revolving scooped up the water. 
The well sweep or bucket and balanced pole still frequently seen 
in certain rural sections of America were water elevators of the 
same simple construction and principle. 

The displacement pump acting on the principle that two bodies 
cannot occupy the same space at the same time finally took the 
place of the bucket lifts, and in the sixteenth century we find 
pumps being introduced into Germany and France. A little later 
than this Paris constructed a filtering plant. Methods of puri- 
fication, however, had been studied much earlier for we read that 
400 years before the Christian Era, Hippocrates had advised 
boiling and filtering drinking water should the supply become 
contaminated, and a filtration plant had been used by the Vene- 
tians. 

Classification of Potable Waters. — 
Atmospheric. 
Surface. 

Sub-soil {^ low ' 

Atmospheric. — Rain is the original source of all natural 
water. It results from the water-vapor rising from the earth's 
surface, being condensed in the upper air and again falling to 
earth. In its descent it purifies the atmosphere by taking up 
ammonia, oxides of nitrogen, carbon dioxide and other soluble 
gases and by washing down solid matter, such as dust, soot, in- 
dustrial waste, spores and micro-organisms. Near the seacoast, 
rain water is found to contain an appreciable amount of salt due 
to spray. In districts containing a number of inhabitants and 
factories rain water is never pure. Even after prolonged washing 



20 FOOD INDUSTRIES 

such an atmosphere is still more or less impure. This is not true 
in the open country for there, after the air has been purified by 
the first rain that falls the water can be collected and stored. This 
is the purest form of natural water known. 

Stored rain should only be used where natural water cannot 
be obtained pure enough for household purposes. In collecting 
rain the first flow should run to waste, thus avoiding contamina- 
tion by dirt, soot and other impurities washed from the atmos- 
phere and from the surface on which the water is collected. 
Such water should be filtered and great care should be given to 
the storage. Cisterns should be so constructed that they will be 
absolutely impervious to surface drainage, and so that they can 
easily be inspected and frequently cleaned. The best materials 
for building are brick, stone, cement and slate. They should be 
kept covered to prevent impurities from falling in and to exclude 
light. This will prevent the development of low forms of plant 
life. A simple system of ventilation is advantageous. 

Surface Water. — After reaching the earth a portion of rain 
water runs over the ground to join streams or larger bodies of 
water. Of these waters lakes and rivers form an important 
source of our water supply. They are known as surface waters. 
The composition varies greatly according to the character of 
the soil over which they flow. Should the soil be rocky a por- 
tion of the mineral salts would undoubtedly be added to the 
water, but it would be more or less free from organic impurities. 
If the water comes in contact with swampy land it will be very 
rich in organic matter. The character of these waters varies 
also according to the uninhabited or settled condition of the 
locality. Water from a clear lake or river exposed to the sun- 
light and air is one of the safest of water supplies in a thinly 
populated region. Such bodies of water, however, become highly 
polluted should they receive the drainage of city or town life. 
From every point of view running streams should be kept free 
from waste matter if they are to be used as a water supply. 

Subsoil Water. — The portion of rain water which sinks 
into the ground is known as subsoil or ground water. It is used 



FOOD INDUSTRIES 21 

as spring water and shallow or deep well water. Subsoil water 
is greatly changed by the character of the strata through which 
it percolates. It passes to various depths according to the por- 
osity and the arrangement of the strata. When it reaches an 
impervious formation it accumulates upon the level. In its 
descent to the earth and again in the soil, water dissolves more or 
less carbon dioxide. The presence of this gas greatly assists in 
dissolving the mineral constituents of the soil. Thus we find in 
limestone regions a large amount of calcium and magnesium car- 
bonates in the water supply making the so-called hard water. 
This condition greatly influences water to be used for detergent 
purposes. While it is generally supposed that hardness in water 
relates principally to cleansing br power operations it is also a 
serious problem for the manufacturer of food products. The 
presence of excessive amounts of lime increases the difficulties of 
sugar refining, canning operations, etc. 

Rain water percolating through the ground may be changed 
also in regard to its purity as a drinking water. As it enters the 
soil it carries with it whatever organic matter it has dissolved 
from the atmosphere. In the upper layer, it again dissolves or- 
ganic and inorganic ingredients and becomes impregnated with 
micro-organisms. Through the agency of the latter the organic 
matter undergoes very important chemical changes, gradually 
resulting in the purification of the water. Water which has per- 
colated through the earth makes a very safe drinking supply, un- 
less there is special contamination due to admixture with sewage, 
which contains excretory products. Organic matter in water 
tends to make it a better solvent for some mineral substances, 
notably iron. This is a serious drawback to its use in many food 
industries. 

Shallow wells are much more likely to be subject to pollution 
of this kind. As a rule properly constructed deep wells, 700 feet 
or more, are not apt to be dangerous, but they are usually higher 
in mineral matter than surface waters. 

Pollution of Wells. — The chief danger to the water supply 
comes from earth closets, cesspools and house-drains. To 



22 FOOD INDUSTRIES 

avoid expense in construction, too often the well and cesspool 
are built comparatively near together. The bottoms and sides 
of the old-fashioned cesspool were usually left open to allow the 
house waste to drain into the surrounding soil. Such condi- 
tions are a great source of danger and it is hoped that the septic 
cesspool will be more universally constructed in the future. In 
the septic cesspool, purification takes place by bacterial action and 
the water is not allowed to drain from it until it has been more 
or less freed from dangerous material. As regards location it is 
a common belief, that if the well is built on slightly higher ground 
than the earth closet or open cesspool, there can be no danger of 
pollution. This is a false impression, however, for it is not so 
much the location that determines the possibility of pollution as 
the relative position of the cesspool and the point where the 
water enters the well. Great carelessness has very often been 
shown in this direction by the property owner who has little 
regard for the rights of his neighbors unless demanded by legal 
restrictions. His own water supply may be carefully guarded, 
but the cesspool may be so located as to be a serious source of 
danger to neighboring wells. 

Contamination of Public Supplies. — Much trouble has been 
caused in the past by the same carelessness in regard to larger 
supplies, that is, the location of earth closets and cesspools along 
the watershed of a public water course. This utter disregard of 
the rights of others has been practiced by communities as well 
as individuals. The municipal supply furnished to the larger 
cities and towns is often drawn from great bodies of surface 
water, such as lakes and rivers. Here there is great opportunity 
for gross neglect of sanitary conditions. Steamships and sailing 
vessels make a practice of discharging their waste matter into 
the water. Manufacturing establishments along the banks add 
to the pollution. The greatest danger, however, comes from 
looking upon rivers as a convenient receptacle for the disposal 
of sewage, for as it has often been said by Mrs. Richards, "It is 
only after contamination with the waste of human life that 
danger comes to other beings." Many epidemics of typhoid in 
the New World and of cholera in the Old World have been 



FOOD INDUSTRIES 23 

caused by using the same body of water as a water supply and 
as a means of disposing of refuse. One town may take water 
from a point above and discharge sewage at another point below, 
a second town farther down the river takes the already contam- 
inated water for drinking purposes, and in its turn discharges 
the sewage at another convenient point. 

Danger of Impure Water. — Hutchison in his "Foods and 
Dietetics" tells us that water is not absorbed by the mucous 
membrane of the stomach ; it begins to flow into the intestines 
at once. The rapidity with which water passes through the 
stomach causes it to be a very dangerous vehicle of infection, 
for the hydrochloric acid of the gastric juice has not the oppor- 
tunity to act upon any disease bacteria which it may contain. 
Once in the intestines pathogenic bacteria find an alkaline medium 
which is most favorable for their growth and reproduction. For 
this reason it is quoted that "Contaminated water is a more 
obnoxious carrier of disease than impure milk." Too much care 
cannot be taken that our water supply be above suspicion. 

While it is the duty of a city or town to supply a safe drinking 
water, to properly construct and maintain reservoirs and filter- 
ing plants, and to provide police surveillance for the water shed, 
it is also the duty of every citizen in such a community to cheer- 
fully pay the necessary expense for its maintenance, and to guard 
his neighbors' rights as his own. Education of the people at 
large on this subject is one of the essentials of modern life. 

Diseases from Water. — The presence of mineral matter quite 
frequently causes temporary intestinal derangement. This is 
more apt to be true with the visiting stranger to a community 
than with those accustomed to its use. The change from a soft 
to a hard water disturbs digestion and frequently causes con- 
stipation, while the change from a hard to a soft water may 
bring about diarrhoea. Organic pollution from vegetable origin 
has also been the cause of many mild epidemics of diarrhceal 
troubles. It is, however, to the typhoid and cholera bacteria that 
the world has owed its death destroying epidemics. 

Cholera has its home in India and has been largely kept alive 



24 FOOD INDUSTRIES 

and scattered in all directions by the pilgrimages taken to sacred 
rivers, such as the Ganges. The pilgrims from all parts of 
India travel in large companies for hundreds and even thousands 
of miles. Exhausted, filthy and many times diseased at the end 
of their journey, it is their custom to bathe in and drink of the 
sacred waters. Poorly fed and sheltered in the midst of the 
most unsanitary conditions, there is little wonder that a cholera 
epidemic is soon started and by returning pilgrims is carried to 
all parts of the country. The European and American nations 
hear with horror tales told of Cholera in India, and yet although 
more enlightened and understanding more fully sanitary condi- 
tions, Europe and America have repeatedly been visited with 
typhoid epidemics. It has been said that we have not advanced 
far in civilization when we have not yet learned as a nation to 
take care of the excreta from our own bodies. Not until the 
end of the nineteenth century were authorities fully awakened to 
this subject and there is still much work to be done in this direc- 
tion. 

PURIFICATION OF WATER. 

Natural Method or Self -purification. — In the examination of 
surface waters, it has frequently been found that water taken 
from a river at a given point contains a certain amount of im- 
purities ; at another point farther down there is considerably less, 
while at a still greater distance it is practically pure. This is sup- 
posed to be due to the fact that water can in time bring about its 
own purification. It is accounted for in several ways : first, the 
water becomes diluted; second, changes take place due to oxida- 
tion and bacterial action; third, sedimentation; fourth, purifying 
influence of algae and other low forms of vegetable life. 

Could these agents always be relied upon there would be no 
need of constructing and maintaining expensive filtration plants. 
Undoubtedly they produce great results in many cases, but at 
other times the purification is only partial while at times it is of 
no special value. There is great danger therefore in relying on 
self-purification. Conditions might exist or arise which would 
prevent these agents from doing their work. Where self-puri- 



FOOD INDUSTRIES 



25 



fication is relied upon every precaution should be taken by the 
local authorities to guard the entire water-shed from all possible 
contamination. 

Artificial Methods. — With the constant increase in our popula- 
tion and the modern tendency toward city and town life, a pure 
water supply has become almost an impossibility. The most that 
we can demand now is a safe water. It is the opinion of sanitary 
engineers that all water supplies should be considered as contam- 
inated and the necessary steps taken to insure the quality in all 
events. Large sums of money have been used and much experi- 




Fig. 1. — Sedimentation Basin. 

mentation has been carried on of late years to determine the best 
methods of purification. Several very efficient methods have been 
discovered and are now in use, but which is best seems to depend 
on local conditions. The most important public methods are bac- 
terial action, filtration and the use of chemical agents. 

Bacterial Purification. — This method is used largely in England 
and is commonly spoken of as the English Filtering System. It 
consists of a filtration through beds of sand or other impervious 
materials which are filled with putrefactive bacteria. Water to 
be filtered is usually run into a sedimentation basin first in order 



26 



FOOD INDUSTRIES 



to allow suspended matter to settle (Fig. i). This will prevent 
a too rapid clogging of the filtering beds if the water is materially 
turbid. After sedimentation has taken place, the water is deliv- 
ered into the top of the beds which are built of concrete and have 
drainage pipes at the bottom to discharge the filtered water into 
wells. In the beds are placed from the bottom upward layers of 
coarse gravel, fine gravel, coarse sand and fine sand (Fig. 2). 




Fig. 2— Section of an English Filter Bed. (Courtesy of John Wiley & Sons.) 

The water percolates through the layers of sand and gravel to 
the drainage pipes which carry it away to the reservoir. Soon 
a slimy growth containing bacteria appears on top of the filter 
beds; these bacteria are the true purifying agents. For a long 
period after this system was put in operation, the purification 



FOOD INDUSTRIES 



27 




28 FOOD INDUSTRIES 

was supposed to be entirely mechanical, then it was thought to 
be due to oxidation. It was discovered eventually that the filter 
beds failed to work thoroughly until the layer of slime had 
formed and after much experimentation the purification was 
traced to bacterial action. The slimy mass acts as a mechanical 
agent and through its bacteria causes the oxidation of organic 
matter and destruction of pathogenic bacteria. When the sedi- 
ment layer becomes so dense that the required amount of water 
fails to pass through, it becomes necessary to clean the bed by the 
removal of the top layer (Fig. 3). The scraped-off sand can then 
be washed by a machine and stored for future use. Several days 
are required for the formation of a new sediment layer before 
the filter bed once more becomes effective. 

Filtration. — A system much in use called "The American Filter 
System" depends on the use of alum and filtration through sand. 
As in the English System the water to be filtered is first run into 
a sedimentation basin, after which potash alum or aluminium 
sulphate is added, 1/10 to 1 grain per gallon. The water is then 
admitted to a filter which is cylindrical in shape, made of wood 
or iron and is filled three-quarters full of fine sand (Fig. 4). 
Alum will readily ionize in water forming a heavy white floccu- 
lent precipitate of aluminium hydroxide, jelly-like in appearance. 
K 2 A1 2 (S0 4 ), + 6H 2 — Al 2 (OH) 6 + K 2 SO, + 3 H 2 S0 4 . 

The precipitate collects on the top of the sand as the water 
filters through. The action of this mass closely resembles the 
clarifying of coffee with egg albumin. It entangles all suspended 
matter which may be purely- inorganic or living organisms and 
deposits them on the surface of the sand. The jelly-like layer 
then acts mechanically much as the bacterial layer of the English 
filter-beds. These processes do not remove mineral matter. 

Where softening is necessary the process consists in adding 
definite amounts of slaked lime to correct temporary hardness. 
After sedimentation and filtration the water is ready for use. 

Use of Sterilising Agents. — Chemical treatment has been long 
used as a means of purifying water and has been found very 
efficient in periods of epidemics. Permanganate of potassium 



FOOD INDUSTRIES 



2 9 



has been used in India during cholera epidemics. This acts as an 
oxidizer of the organic matter in water and then attacks the 
bacteria. Calcium hypochlorite (chloride of lime), chlorine and 
bromine are also effective in destroying micro-organisms. Per- 
haps alum is the agent most commonly employed for purifying 
water. It was first used in Egypt during the time of Napoleon 
to clarify the muddy water used by his army. As it has been 




Fig. 4.— View of the Interior of the East Albany, N. Y., Filter-plant. 
(Covirtesy of John Wiley & Sons.) 



previously described, alum will form a precipitate carrying down 
all suspended matter and will greatly improve the appearance of 
water. This method of purification is used quite extensively in 
public baths. For drinking purposes it should only be used in 
small amounts. Where alum has been used to throw down coagu- 
lated matter, it increases the hardness of a naturally hard water. 
In order to overcome this hardness sodium carbonate is added in 



3Q 



FOOD INDUSTRIES 



amount calculated to precipitate all as carbonate of lime. The 
use of chloride of lime has increased extensively in recent years. 
Distillation. — Where it is necessary to obtain a supply of water 
free from mineral and organic impurities, distillation must be 
resorted to. This method is frequently used in connection with 
the manufacture of mineral waters and non-alcoholic beverages, 




Fig. 5.— Distillation Apparatus. (Courtesy of Carl H. SchulU Co.) 

and where water containing a large amount of mineral matter is 
the only available source of supply. The latter condition exists 
on ship board and in alkali regions. To obtain the best and most 
economical results the process is briefly as follows: 1st, filtration 
through sand with or without the coagulant alum ; 2nd, preboiling 
in an open still to permit the escape of volatile matter; 3rd, dis- 
tillation in a closed still. 



FOOD INDUSTRIES 31 

Household Methods. — Where public methods cannot be depended 
upon or in times of special contamination, it is often necessary 
for the householder to purify his water supply. The most 
common methods are boiling and the use of domestic filters. 

Boiling. — Boiling is the oldest and simplest way of purifying 
water. It has been used from the earliest times and is still one 
of the most effective methods that we have. As the chief danger 
of a polluted water comes from the typhoid bacillus, whose 
thermal death point is below the boiling point of water, prolonged 
boiling is not necessary. Boiled water is not palatable as the air 
has been driven out. It is well to cool and pass it from one 
vessel to another or to agitate it in contact with the air to restore 
the original taste. 

Use of Domestic Filters. — Most of the many varieties of house 
filters remove only dirt, iron rust and other coarse particles in 



A 

Fig. 6. -The Berkefeld Filter. 

suspension. They are usually small in size and contain a com- 
paratively small amount of sand or charcoal. While sand is 
effective on a large scale, and charcoal is a well-known deodorizer 
and clarifier, the amount is not enough to affect a large quantity 
of water run through them with the pressure of the ordinary 
city supply. In a very short time these filters become impreg- 
nated with bacterial life, the growth and development of which 
soon make them a dangerous medium through which to pass 
water. Effective filters, however, can be bought, but at a much 
higher price than the ordinary house filter. The Berkefeld 
(Fig. 6), Pasteur-Chamberland and Aqua Pura are filters of this 
type. The filtering medium in the first two is unglazed, well- 
baked porcelain, and in the latter, sandstone. Both of these 



32 FOOD INDUSTRIES 

media are capable of holding back micro-organisms as well as 
suspended matter. Great care must be given these filters to have 
them work effectively. Bacteria soon cover the filtering surface 
and must be cleaned off by scraping or scrubbing. Most filters 
of this type also require sterilization by baking, boiling or sub- 
jecting them to live steam. Unless the housekeeper is willing to 
give the filter proper care it is far safer to boil the water. 

Judging a Water Supply. — In regard to a drinking water the 
world at large still retains the primitive idea that purity in 
appearance alone is necessary in judging a safe water. Expert 
examination has shown that appearance alone is of little value. 
A pure water is generally bright and sparkling, but it has been 
found that some highly contaminated waters show remarkable 
brilliancy. On the other hand water may be distinctly muddy, 
owing to minute particles of clay or turbid from the effect of 
iron and still not be dangerous. Neither can safely be judged by 
color and odor. Color may be due to traces of iron or to leaves 
and other such color imparting substances. The presence of color 
does not indicate that water is unfit for domestic use, neither 
does the absence of color indicate purity, for many polluted 
waters are colorless. Repulsive odors in water usually mean 
stagnation, presence of dead animals or other decomposing or- 
ganic matter which makes it unfit for drinking purposes, but 
many odors may be present in water which are perfectly harm- 
less as grassy or peaty odors. The only safe way of judging the 
purity of a water supply is by chemical and bacterial tests. The 
chemical examination usually made is for the presence of organic 
matter, and consists of the quantitative estimation for the total 
solids, free ammonia, albuminoid ammonia, nitrites and nitrates, 
chlorides and oxygen consuming power. Such tests to be reliable 
should not be made by the amateur but by an expert chemist in 
a room set apart for this purpose. 

Great care should be given in collecting a sample of water to 
be sent for examination, since careless handling would make the 
analysis worthless. If the bottles have not been provided by the 
chemist, a glass bottle or a demijohn which has been thoroughly 
cleaned and fitted with a glass stopper or new cork can be used. 



FOOD INDUSTRIES 33 

Details in regard to further directions for collecting samples, the 
significance of the tests and analytical methods can be found in 
"Air, Water and Food" by Woodman and Norton or other 
standard works on water analysis. 

Ice Supply. — The taking of ice from polluted waters has been 
a subject much discussed of late years. Many micro-organisms 
including typhoid are not killed by freezing, and it is claimed by 
many authorities that such ice is dangerous if put into drinking 
water for cooling purposes. It is a well-known fact that cold 
storage food will deteriorate rapidly when taken from ice. This 
would not be true if bacterial life had been destroyed. It has 
been discovered, however, that after prolonged freezing most 
germs are practically harmless, and for that reason some authori- 
ties claim that ice is safe to use even if taken from a con- 
taminated water. If there is any doubt of the ice supply, it is 
far safer to chill drinking water by placing it in bottles on ice 
rather than by putting the ice in the water. 

MINERAL WATERS. 

The term mineral water is usually applied to spring water 
which contains a larger volume of gases dissolved in it or more 
solid matter in solution than ordinary drinking water. It may 
therefore exert a different effect on the human body. 

According to their most characteristic ingredients they are 
classified as follows : 

Acidulous, Alkaline, Bitter, Sulphur, Chalybeate, Acid, 
Alum, Borax, Saline, Ljthia. 
These mineral waters may be either natural or artificial. 

Natural Mineral Springs. — Mineral springs have been found in 
many countries of both the Old and New World and from the 
early ages have attracted much attention. They often present 
remarkable appearances when relieved from subterranean pres- 
sure by losing their gases with great rapidity. This causes 
them to be thrown upward to a height of 20-40 feet accompanied 
by a hissing or rumbling noise. Some waters are icy cold while 
others are at a boiling heat. These and other phenomena led to 
3 



34 FOOD INDUSTRIES 

many superstitious beliefs in the early ages and these waters 
were supposed to possess supernatural properties. There is, 
however, nothing unnatural about their origin. Subsoil water 
containing a considerable amount of carbon dioxide may sink to 
great depths and may be subjected to great pressure or even 
heat. Should such water find an outlet it would tend to escape 
with considerable force. Much of the dissolved matter undoubt- 
edly is obtained from rocky soil through which the water has 
percolated. The solvent action of water, greatly increased by 
the presence of carbon dioxide and sometimes heat, may take 
from one type of rock certain acids which later react with basic 
elements dissolved from another rock, thus producing salts. Salts 
of lime, magnesium and iron are quite frequently found in these 
waters. 

Occurrence. — Hot mineral springs have been found to occur 
most frequently in volcanic districts where there is likely to be 
much sulphur and a considerable variety of mineral matter. Car- 
bonated springs are usually found in localities containing a deposit 
of limestone. They occur in many parts of the world and there 
are but few countries where they have not been found. France, 
Germany, Italy, Spain, Greece, Asia Minor, United States, and 
Canada are rich in mineral springs, while they can also be found 
in Great Britain, Sweden, Norway and in many parts of Africa 
and the Orient. 

Medicinal Value. — Mineral waters have been used as medic- 
inal agents from very early periods. The pages of ancient 
authors frequently contain wonderful tales of their curative 
power, and records speak of resorts where the sick bathed in 
healing waters or drank of medicinal fountains. These mineral 
springs seemed to have played an important part in the religion 
of some nations, for the Greeks frequently erected their temples 
near such places, where their gods could be worshiped and their 
sick healed of whatsoever disease they incurred. In the works of 
Latin writers we often meet with allusions to medicinal springs, 
and the splendor of the buildings erected in their vicinity in 
Italy testify to the esteem in which they were held by the 



FOOD INDUSTRIES 35 

Romans. This faith in the curative power little changed has come 
down from these early times to the present day. How much they 
really do affect disease is a question of great interest to the 
modern physician. Considerable difficulty is experienced by in- 
vestigators of the subject for it is hard to eliminate other circum- 
stances which may contribute to the cure of the patient. A dif- 
ferent climate, possibly a change in altitude alone has a remark- 
able effect in many diseases. Different diet, complete rest, change 
in hours of retiring and arising, new and possibly cheerful 
society, relief from the harassing cares of business or demands of 
social life are experienced. Patients after a short period at 
these springs return to their homes much improved, many times 
entirely due to rest, recreation, more open-air exercise, regular 
habits, etc. It is hardly fair, however, to state that the waters 
have had no part in the benefits obtained. The feeling against 
these mineral springs or spas as they are frequently called has 
come largely from the quackery surrounding the resorts. The 
superstition of past ages gave to them the power of curing all 
diseases-. This same "cure-all" style of advertisement is^still 
largely used by proprietors of springs and local physicians in the 
hope of attracting large crowds, and has done much to bring 
odium on the spas and to disgust the modern scientist. Before 
using these waters it should be carefully determined that the 
water is effective for the specific disease, and that the sanitary 
conditions surrounding the springs have been properly guarded. 
There is no reason to believe that mineral water will not become 
as highly contaminated as ordinary drinking water if exposed to 
sewage. It has long been a custom also to bottle and sell mineral 
waters, and should they be contaminated, disease can readily be 
carried to all parts of the country. 

Artificial Mineral Waters. — In the latter part of the eighteenth 
century, it was suggested by scientists that an artificial aerated 
water could be made by charging water with carbon dioxide. 
The gas was obtained by the action of oil of vitriol on chalk. 

H 2 S0 4 + CaC0 3 — C0 2 + H 2 + CaSO,. 
This carbonated water is still largely used, but most manufac- 



36 



FOOD INDUSTRIES 



turers at the present time prefer to use bicarbonate of soda as a 
means of generating the gas, as the soda compound being soluble 
is less troublesome (Fig. 7). 



Carbonic Acid Gas 
Generator. 




Fig- 7-— Carbon Dioxide Generator. By allowing sulphuric acid to flow drop by drop 
from the upper container into the lower tank which is filled with a solution of 
bicarbonate of soda, carbon dioxide gas is obtained. (Courtesy of Carl H. Schultz 
Co.) 

H 2 S0 4 + 2 NaHC0 3 **-+ 2C0 2 + 2H 2 + Na 2 S0 4 . 
From this simple suggestion has grown an industry for mak- 
ing not only carbonated water but mineral waters closely re- 



FOOD INDUSTRIES 37 

sembling the natural mineral springs. By careful analysis of the 
spas, chemists have been able to combine mineral salts in the 
same proportions, thus giving an artificial water claimed by 
many to be as beneficial as the natural water. The trouble with 
the natural waters is that they cannot be expected to be constant 
in composition; the artificial, if carefully compounded, are in- 
variable. Care should be given, however, in the use of these 
waters that the firm placing them on the market is thoroughly 
reliable. 



CHAPTER III. 



CEREALS. 



Biological Origin. — The botanist places cereals as belonging to 
the family of grasses, the long cultivation of which produces 
seeds which can be utilized as food. The word cereal can be 
traced to Ceres, the name of the Pagen goddess who was sup- 
posed to preside over the grains and harvests. 

Geographical Distribution. — Cereals are extensively cultivated 
in all parts of the world except the Arctic region, and but few 
countries can be found which do not raise grain in some form 
as a staple food. The reason for the extensive utilization of 
these cereal foods can readily be seen: ist, being easily grown, 
they are comparatively cheap ; 2nd, there is little refuse as com- 
pared with food products, such as meat, fish and shell-fish; 3rd, 
they contain a fair proportion of nutritive value; 4th, the keep- 
ing quality is excellent if the cereals are properly protected from 
dust and insects, and on account of their dryness, they are not 
readily attacked by micro-organisms ; 5th, they can be easily pre- 
pared for the table, are palatable and when properly cooked are 
not difficult of digestion. 

The most important varieties are wheat, corn, rice, oats, rye 
and barley. Early in history wheat took the leading place not 
only on account of the nourishment it contains but the fact that it 
can be converted so readily into breadstuff. In the temperate 
region of the world it is the principal cereal grown. As we go 
north barley, oats and rye increase in importance while in the 
tropics wheat culture is associated with rice, maize and millet. 
For a brief history of wheat including the old and new processes 
of milling see Chapters IV and V. 

Use in Our Country. — The American people eat a great quan- 
tity of cereals. This is a natural outcome of early conditions in 
this country. When Columbus landed on the Western Continent 
he found the native tribes had a cereal under extensive cultiva- 
tion. This the early settlers called corn, the European name for 
the leading cereal food of their native land. So exclusively was 



FOOD INDUSTRIES 



39 



this grain grown in the New World that in time the word lost its 
original meaning and came to be applied only to Indian corn or 
maize. 

Columbus is supposed to have carried grains of corn to Europe 
on his first return voyage but its cultivation there spread very 
slowly. Although introduced into Spain at the end of the fifteenth 
century it did not reach France until a hundred years later. 
It was finally carried into Asia by Portuguese merchants and into 
Africa by missionaries. In the Western World it advanced with 
the progress of the white race. 

Average Composition of Grains in Different Forms. 



Wheat : 

Grains 

Meal 

Flour 

Oats : 

Grains 

Meal 

Rye: 

Grains ■' 

Meal 

Flour 

Corn : 
Grains 

M*alig ld P rocess - 
I. New process 

Rice : 

Grains 

Polished 

Flaked 



Water 


Protein 


Fat 


Starch 


Fiber 


12. o 


II. O 


1-7 


71.2 


2.2 


12. 1 


12.9 


1-9 


70.3 


1.6 


13.0 


9-5 


0.8 


75-3 


0.7 


10.0 


10.9 


4-5 


59-1 


12.0 


7.2 


10.2 


7-3 


65-9 


3-5 


II. 


10.2 


2-3 


72.3 


2.1 


II. 2 


6.7 


0.9 


80.0 


0.8 


12-5 


9-7 


5-4 


68.9 


2.0 


1 1.4 


«-5 


4.6 


72.8 


i-4 


12.5 


6.8 


i-3 


78.0 


0.8 


I2.0 


7.2 


2.0 


76.8 


1.0 


12.4 


6.9 


0.4 


79-4 


0.4 


11. 7 


7-9 


0.5 


79-5 





i-9 
1.2 
0.7 



3-5 
i-9 



2.1 

0.4 



i-5 
i-3 
0.6 



1.0 

0.5 
0.4 



INDIAN CORN OR MAIZE. 
Origin. — Indian corn or maize is indigenous to the tropical 
countries of America. The prevalent opinion is that it was a 
native of Central America and Mexico and that it passed through 
the same stages of cultivation and dissemination as other cereal 
foods. It resembles the sugar cane of the tropics rather than 



40 FOOD INDUSTRIES 

other cereals and has the most beautiful and luxuriant growth of 
all the grains. 

From Central America it is supposed to have spread into 
South America traces of it having been found in the ancient 
tombs of Peru, to the West Indies and finally into North 
America. It has been found in the prehistoric mounds of Ohio 
and in the cliff dwellings of the southwest, but never among the 
remains of Egyptian monuments, thus strengthening the belief 
that it is solely of western origin. 

Cultivation. — Evidently maize had been cultivated long and 
extensively before the discovery of America, for by the time 
European travelers penetrated into the New World, it was being 
grown by most of the North American Indians. When Cartier 
ascended the St. Lawrence he found fields of corn where Mont- 
real now stands. The early chronicles of Virginia and other 
colonies contain many descriptions of its cultivation; the white 
man first receiving this food from the Indian, then learning the 
secrets of its successful growth from his red brother. 

The climatic conditions seemed to have been particularly 
adapted for its cultivation — an abundant rainfall and a high tem- 
perature during the growing season. We read, too, in history 
of another possible reason for the successful growth of this 
cereal. All along the Atlantic coast the Indians made a practice 
of fishing. The menhaden, which is inedible, was placed at once 
on the corn hills. After using the edible varieties of fish, it was 
also their custom to put the bones into the fields for fertilizing 
purposes. Modern scientists have discovered that these bones 
contain phosphates, the material best adapted as a fertilizer for 
corn. 

When the early settlers first received this food from the In- 
dian, its excellence seemed to have quickly impressed itself upon 
them, for the history of the American Colonies was afterwards 
closely connected with the cultivation of this cereal. 

The production of maize has slowly advanced until it is now 
one of the staple food crops of the world ; the quantity produced 
is greater than that of any other cereal, climatic conditions alone 



FOOD INDUSTRIES 41 

limit its more widespread distribution. In the United States 
where two-thirds of the world's crop is produced maize grow- 
ing has become one of the leading industries exceeding in value 
that of wheat and cotton. Although cultivated to a greater or 
less extent in all states, 58 per cent, is grown in the Cen- 
tral States, a section now known as the corn belt. It includes 
Iowa, Illinois, Nebraska, Kansas, Missouri, Indiana and Ohio. 
Notwithstanding the fact that enormous quantities can be grown 
in this country very little corn is exported except in the form of 
corn products. The greater part of the corn produced never 
leaves the farm on which it is grown, it having been found more 
profitable to utilize it to fatten cattle, sheep and swine brought 
from the western stock ranges. Among the South American 
countries, Argentina alone has produced more maize than is 
needed for home consumption; about 50 per cent, of her crop 
was exported but less is now being sent abroad owing to local 
demands for stock feeding and manufacture. South Africa has 
great opportunities also for competing for trade in the world's 
market, a fact not appreciated until 1907. Until that date local 
market's took all that could be produced but in 1907 a bumper 
crop lowered local prices, while high maize prices prevailed in 
Europe. Other factors influencing maize exportation were a 
financial depression due to the Boer war, which put business men 
on the qui vive for new openings and government assistance by 
offering reduced railroad rates and other facilities. 

Varieties. — Popcorn, flint, dent, soft maize and sweet corn rep- 
resent the chief bulk, although there are some seven hundred 
varieties of corn grown in the United States. Most varieties 
have white or yellow kernels, but various other colors are repre- 
sented, such as black, blue and red. 

Early Methods of Preparation. — Hulled corn or lye hominy was 
used early by the colonists and in time became one of our typical 
American foods, especially among the natives of New York and 
the New England States. Corn was taken in its dry state and 
immersed for several hours in a solution of wood-ash called lye. 
In time the outer coat became soft and could be removed by gently 



42 FOOD INDUSTRIES 

stirring without impairing the inner part. After careful wash- 
ing to remove the alkali it was ready for a long, slow process of 
cooking. The method of cooking used was an old Indian custom 
and strongly resembled our fireless cooker of to-day. Large 
stones were thoroughly heated by means of a fire and when 
sufficiently hot were piled around the utensil holding the corn. 
Along the coast seaweeds were used to cover it. The corn was 
kept in this heat until it was ready to be eaten. 

Old Milling Method. — The early colonial records tell us that 
the Indians pounded corn after parching it before an open fire. 
The handstones or "corn" stones were of the mortar and pestle 
type closely resembling those used by primitive people the world 
over. Many of these ancient stones have been found near the 
Indian settlements in Texas as well as other parts of the United 
States. After crushing the corn to a coarse meal, sometimes 
nuts and berries or bits of meat and fish were added. The 
colonists took very kindly to this dish as it closely resembled 
Scotch oatmeal when meat broth was added. 

Samp, Hominy and Cornmeal. — Very early in the history of 
the colonial days samp was placed upon the market. It was pre- 
pared by a purely mechanical method by which the hull and germ 
were separated by a process of cracking and sifting. Samp 
is the edible part of the corn ; it is practically the whole kernel 
minus the germ and hull. When coarsely ground it appears as 
hominy. The maize kernel was also ground between stones, 
bolted to remove the bran, and a meal thus produced which could 
be used directly as human food. Hominy or cornmeal could be 
boiled as hominy, mush or hasty pudding or baked as hoe-cake, 
johnny cakes, corn-bread and muffins. 

Modern Milling. — Modern milling operations have greatly 
changed the method of producing cornmeal and flour. Corn 
after being carefully cleaned is kiln dried to remove moisture, 
and either crushed between grooved mill-stones to desired fine- 
ness or ground between cylinders, and sifted to remove particles 
of bran. Not only is the outer bran removed much more care- 
fully than in former years, but to a large extent the germ as well. 



FOOD INDUSTRIES 43 

This is particularly true of flour meant for export, thus avoiding 
changes of a deleterious nature taking place during transporta- 
tion. In corn the greater part of the fat occurs in the germ 
which in time is apt to become rancid. The removal is therefore 
a distinct advantage as far as the keeping quality is concerned, 
but it greatly impairs the palatability and nutritive value of the 
prepared meal. Dr. H. W. Wiley claims that "Refined Indian 
meal has lost three-fourths of its fat, a large proportion of its 
mineral matter and also a very considerable portion of its pro- 
tein, due to the separation of the bran which is extremely rich 
in protein and the germ which is rich in oil and protein." 

The color of cornmeal and flour depends on the color of the 
variety of corn used, white or yellow. It is coarse or fine accord- 
ing to the process employed in milling. 

Uses. — Food for Man. — Indian corn is the leading cereal of the 
Americas. It is grown in all kinds of soil and under favorable 
conditions produces a large yield. Maize is lower in protein than 
wheat or oats, but fully equal to other cereals in that respect 
and contains a larger proportion of fat than most of the grains. 
It is a food well adapted to those engaged in hard, manual labor 
as it yields a comparatively high amount of energy. Throughout 
the United States it is used as food, but more extensively in the 
South where Indian corn is served in some form daily at one or 
more meals. As a garden vegetable corn is raised in large quan- 
tities for the market to be eaten on the cob or boiled with beans 
as succotash. The canning of corn is an important industry in 
some states, especially Maine and New York. Popcorn is used 
largely throughout the states as a delicacy. It is a specially hard 
variety which has the property of completely turning inside out 
on the application of heat. Corn is also used as before stated, 
either cracked or crushed as hominy and finely ground, either 
bolted or unbolted as meal or flour. On account of the inability 
of the nitrogenous constituents to form gluten, corn flour cannot 
be utilized for bread-making unless it is mixed with a large pro- 
portion of wheat flour. 

Food for Cattle. — As food for cattle the importance of corn 
cannot be overestimated. The entire plant can be used in the 



44 FOOD INDUSTRIES 

green state as fodder corn or corn can be fed to animals on the 
cob, as corn kernels, meal, mill products, ensilage, etc. 

Other Uses. — The dried cobs furnish a fuel and are also used 
in the manufacture of tobacco pipes. On account of its porosity 
and power of absorption, corn pith is used in the construction 
of war vessels. Compressed blocks of corn pith cellulose are 
placed behind the outer armor, where in case of its being pierced 
during battle the water will be quickly absorbed. Pith is also 
used for making varnishes, gun-cotton and other explosives. The 
husks are used in many country places for the making of mat- 
tresses. Corn is largely used in the preparation of alcohol and 
alcoholic beverages. The kernel which contains the starch in 
comparatively large amounts furnishes the source of supply for 
most of the American Starch Industry. For further information 
on this subject see Chapter IX, Starch and Allied Industries. 

Adulteration. — Practically no adulteration of corn products has 
been found by the United States Department of Agriculture. 

RICE. 

Origin. — Rice has been cultivated from times immemorial but 
it is supposed to have originated from the wild variety. Mention 
is made of its cultivation in China as early as 2800 B. C. It is 
undoubtedly of Eastern origin for we find it early appearing in 
India and Japan as a staple food and allusion is made to its use 
in the Talmud. Rice is supposed to have been introduced into 
Persia from Southern India and later carried by the Arabs into 
Spain. Although it was raised in Southern Europe in the fif- 
teenth century it was not introduced into the United States until 
1694 when the captain of a sailing vessel from Madagascar pre- 
sented a bag of "paddy" rice to a Charleston merchant. It soon 
became an important industry of South Carolina and continued 
as such until the breaking out of the Civil War. 

Geographical Distribution. — Rice is now grown extensively in 
India, China, Japan, Southern Europe and in our own Southern 
States, particularly the South Atlantic and Gulf Section. The 
Carolinas produce the best rice, large amounts being also grown 
in Louisiana and Texas. 



FOOD INDUSTRIES 45 

Composition. — Rice is rich in starch, poor in protein, fat and 
mineral matter. In the East the deficiency of protein is supplied 
by the addition of leguminous plants, a combination of rice and 
legumes being a cheaper complete food than wheat and meat. 
South Carolina and Japan rices are richer in fat and are there- 
more highly prized among rice eating nations. 

Cultivation. — Rice is one of the most extensively cultivated 
of the grains furnishing the principal food cereal for over one- 
third of the human race. Where dense populations are depend- 
ent upon an annual crop, rice has been chosen wherever the cli- 
mate permits as it is the most prolific of all crops. It will grow 
best on soil ill adapted for any other grain. Sub-tropical rather 
than tropical climate gives the largest yield. Rice requires a moist 
soil artifically flooded at certain seasons. The fields are often 
so wet that workmen sink to their knees. It grows most freely 
on lowlands, especially on land which can be flooded, but it can 
also be raised on upland fields. Japan grows large quantities of 
rice on terraces of hills and mountain sides by flooding from 
reservoirs built on a higher elevation. 

Milling. — The primitive method of milling rice was very simple 
and is still in common use in many of the oriental countries. 
Rough rice was placed in a hollow stone and pounded with a 
pestle until the hull and cuticle were sufficiently loosened to be 
removed by the process of winnowing. A hollow block of wood 
was afterwards substituted for the stone, a wooden pestle or 
pounder as it was called being so arranged above the block that 
the pounder would fall into the rice tub when operated by the 
miller. Water power in time was used and finally modern ma- 
chinery and methods were introduced. 

The object of modern milling is to produce from rough or 
"paddy" rice, a rice for the market which has been not only thor- 
oughly cleaned and the husk and cuticle removed, but having 
the inner surface polished. To accomplish this, rice must pass 
through a long and complicated process. 

I. Rough rice is screened to remove dirt and foreign material 
of all kinds. 



46 FOOD INDUSTRIES 

II. Chaff is loosened by rapidly revolving mill-stones and 
removed by screening. This sifting also causes a separation of 
whole and broken grains. 

III. The outer skin is removed by passing the whole grain 
through a huller. By screening a separation is made of the clean 
rice and flour. 

IV. The clean rice has become heated through friction so must 
remain in cooling bins for 8 or 9 hours. After passing through 
brush screens to remove the last of the rice flour, rice is ready 
for the final process of polishing. 

V. Polishing is done by friction with moosehide or sheepskin 
rolls. This process gives to rice its pearly appearance and satis- 
fies the demands of fashion. It is a blunder, however, from the 
standpoint of food value as much nourishment is lost in the re- 
moval of nearly all of the fat and mineral matter during the 
hulling and polishing process. Unpolished rice is more economi- 
cal, has greater food value and has a richer flavor which makes 
the rice served in oriental countries so much superior to that 
obtainable in this country. 

Adulteration. — The adulteration of rice is confined to coating 
the grains with paraffin, talc or glucose. The object is to give 
a better appearance to the grain and protect it from insects. The 
use of talc, paraffin or other indigestible material is indefensible. 

Uses. — Rice as a food furnishes a starch supply which is 
easily digested and useful in disordered conditions of the di- 
gestive tract when many solid foods cannot be borne. In rice- 
growing countries it is used as a substitute for wheat bread and 
potatoes. Rice flour cannot be used for bread-making and is 
seldom employed for cake but mixed with wheat-flour it gives 
whiteness to bread. A large proportion of the rice taken to 
Europe is used for starch-making, rice starch being employed in 
laundries and muslin factories. It is the source of the chief 
alcoholic drink of India and the national beverage of Japan is 
prepared from the grain by means of a ferment. In both Europe 
and America rice is used by the distillers of alcohol and is often 
employed in brewing. Rice straw is used as a cattle food and 



FOOD INDUSTRIES 47 

as a material for bonnets. Rice polish or the fine flour resulting 
from the polishing process is utilized as a food stock especially for 
cows and pigs. Rice hulls are used as fertilizers and also for 
packing around breakable articles. 

OATS. 

Oats furnish a more important food material for human be- 
ings in Europe than in America, the largest amount being con- 
sumed in the British Isles. Their chief use, however, both 
abroad and here is for cattle food especially for horses. The 
plant furnishes green forage, hay and straw as well as the milling 
products. 

Composition. — Unlike rice, oats are particularly rich in nitro- 
genous constituents and mineral matter. They are highly es- 
teemed as a food for the building and restoration of tissue. 
Oats contain more fat than any other cereal closely resembling 
Indian corn in this respect. Many varieties are cultivated for 
the preparation of oatmeal but in general character they bear a 
close resemblance to one another. 

Oatmeal. — As a human food, oats appear on the market in 
the form of oatmeal or "groats." The outer husk is closely ad- 
herent to the grain and cannot be entirely separated from the 
kernel by the ordinary method of grinding. Oatmeal therefore 
consists of not only the kernel but a great deal of cellulose in the 
form of small, sharp particles. These act as a stimulant to the 
intestines, irritating to some people. 

On account of the large amount of fat oatmeal is often spoken 
of as a "heating food" and its use is discouraged during the 
summer months. In the American diet, however, oatmeal is 
not eaten often or in large amounts so this cannot be a serious 
consideration. Oatmeal is probably the most nutritious of the 
cereal foods but it seems to have a peculiar heating effect in some 
cases causing skin eruption. The reason for this is not certain, 
some claiming it to be caused by the protein, others attributing 
it to a special constituent found only in oatmeal. 

Milling. — In the manufacture the grain is thoroughly cleaned 
to remove foreign material of all kinds, kiln-dried to loosen the 



48 FOOD INDUSTRIES 

outer husk and to develop flavor, then screened to remove husks. 
The kernel thus freed is known as groats. All forms of oatmeal 
are produced from groats. For further information see Chap- 
ter VI, Breakfast Foods. 

Adulteration. — The adulteration of oatmeal is not frequent, as 
the price of this cereal is so low that the substitution of other 
grains would not be profitable. 

BARLEY. 

Origin. — Barley is generally supposed to have originated from 
the wild species native to "Western Asia. According to Pliny 
it is one of the earliest of cereals in the diet of mankind. It has 
been found in the lake dwellings of Switzerland, in deposits be- 
longing to the Stone Age and in the earliest Egyptian monuments. 
Barley is spoken of in the books of Moses and early Greek and 
Roman writers make many references to it. The Greeks are 
supposed to have trained their athletes on this cereal and the 
sacred barley of antiquity figured on many of the ancient coins. 

Cultivation. — The cultivation of barley is somewhat similar to 
that of wheat so far as soil is concerned. It is, however, con- 
sidered the most hardy of all the cereal grains, its limit extend- 
ing farther north than the others and reaching as far south as the 
sub-tropics. It has been grown successfully in Ireland, Norway 
and Alaska and in Egypt, India and Algeria. 

Composition. — Barley contains all the nutritive properties of 
the other cereals. It contains less protein and carbohydrate than 
wheat, but has more fat and mineral matter. 

Use. — Until comparatively recent years, barley formed an im- 
portant article of diet in most of the northern countries and it 
is still largely used in Northern Europe among the peasantry. 
In England it was the leading cereal of the early days the tra- 
ditional goose-pie and bag-pudding of the Christmas feast being 
made of this cereal. It was used until very recently by 90 per 
cent, of the laboring class, but wheat has gradually taken its 
place throughout Great Britain although barley cakes are to 
some extent still eaten. 



FOOD INDUSTRIES 49 

In Japan rice is generally supposed to be the only cereal, but 
barley is largely used among the poorer classes, a social line be- 
ing drawn between the rice-eating and barley eating natives. It 
is also much used among the Hebrews as a breakfast food and 
pudding. • 

Medically barley is rated as the mildest of the cereals and in 
various forms it is found often in invalid dietaries. 

In the Old World it is grown extensively for horses, cattle 
and pigs, the hay and straw being utilized. In the United States 
it is grown in the northern and western parts to some extent for 
hay but its chief use is for making fermented beverages. It is 
not utilized to any extent as a human food although it is some- 
times used in domestic cookery as an ingredient of soups and 
broths, and in cereal breakfast foods where it is mixed with 
wheat. 

Mill Products. — About the only products milled are meal and 
pearl barley. Barley meal is the whole grain cleaned, deprived 
of its outer husk and ground. In this form it is sometimes sold 
to the brewer. Pearl barley has the outer and inner husk removed, 
is ground to a round form and put through a polishing process. 
As a food it is used mostly in this form for thickening soups, 
making cool drinks for invalids and for infant feeding. 



CHAPTER IV. 



THE KING OF CEREALS. OLD MILLING PROCESSES. 

Taking the civilized world as a whole, both in the quantity- 
produced and in its value as a human food, wheat has won the 
name of the world's King of Cereals. It is the cereal best 
adapted for bread-making and appears to meet the needs of 
civilized life more completely than the other grain foods. As the 
standard of living advances in a nation, wheat has grown steadily 
in commercial importance. If there were time to look thoroughly 
into the history of this cereal, we should find that the growth and 
development of wheat has been interwoven with the very life his- 
tory of the human race. 

Origin. — It is impossible to tell how long it has been utilized 
as a food by mankind, for archaeologists claim that its record 
begins in prehistoric times. The most ancient languages mention 
it and the fact that it has been found in the earliest habitations 
of man is a proof of its antiquity. Specimens have been dis- 
covered in the Swiss lake dwellings and among the remains of 
Egyptian civilization. The Chinese claim that it was grown in 
their Empire over 3,000 years before the Christian Era and the 
Bible mentions its use as early as the Book of Genesis. If these 
accounts be true, wheat must have kept its place in man's diet 
for nearly 6,000 years. Such a record of long, faithful service 
could not be unless the grain of wheat had locked up within its 
kernal the elements which are most needed to maintain heat, 
and replace the energy and tissue which are constantly being 
worn away during life's processes. The savage in his hunger 
seemed to have instinctively turned to it as a food, and the wis- 
dom of his choice can readily be seen by a study of its composi- 
tion as given by Dr. H. W. Wiley, formerly of the United States 
Department of Agriculture. 

Water 10.60 

Protein 12.25 

Fat 1.75 

Fiber 2.40 

Starch, etc 71.25 

Ash 1.75 



FOOD INDUSTRIES 5 1 

Geographical Distribution. — The raising of wheat has so long 
been a practice with man that the geographical origin is unknown. 
Egyptians attribute its discovery to Isis and the Chinese claim 
to have received the seed as a direct gift from Heaven. It was 
at one time the custom for the Chinese Emperor to drive the 
plow in order to do homage to the dignity of agriculture! The 
belief that it originated in the Valley of the Euphrates and Tigris 
is more widely accepted than any other theory. Early it spread 
into Phoenicia and Egypt, finding a most suitable lodging place 
along the shore of the Mediterranean. The climate there was 
suited to its cultivation, dry and hot during the summer months. 
Italians as far back as the early Roman days obtained part of 
their wheat supply from the north of Africa, for that war-like 
nation was unable to produce enough wheat for its own con- 
sumption. Many of their wars were for the purpose of 
capturing the harvest from their more successful wheat growing 
neighbors. 

The migration of wheat from those early days was closely 
connected with the migration of the human race. Gradually 
spreading throughout Europe, it finally reached Germany, 
France and Great Britain, although the latter country has never 
been able to grow enough wheat to supply its population. Great 
Britain still obtains much of its wheat from countries where con- 
ditions are more favorable for the growth of this cereal. Extend- 
ing into Russia, wheat once more found a suitable soil and 
climate which in time produced so large a supply that Russia 
became known as "The Granary of Europe." That title she 
continued to keep until the famine of 1891-92 swept the country 
with a terrible scourge and from which she has never fully recov- 
ered. The failure of the crops during those years was caused 
not only by bad weather but by the continued use of crude agri- 
cultural methods which in time thoroughly impoverished the soil. 
Should she use more up-to-date methods in regard to fertilizing, 
she might again regain that title, but the yield per acre at present 
is very small. The peasantry still cling to old methods slightly 
in advance of the Middle Ages. In Russia, there are still 
immense undeveloped areas that would make ideal wheat fields 



52 FOOD INDUSTRIES 

and much is being looked for in the Siberian wheat-growing 
area. It is difficult to predict, however, what part the Russian 
Empire will play in the wheat market of the future. The 'possi- 
bilities are very great, but many changes must first be brought 
about in the political and social condition of the people, for 
Russia is still sadly lacking in the institutions that are necessary 
to bring about progress and prosperity. Even with these great 
drawbacks Russia is still one of the greatest wheat producing 
countries of the world, largely due to the Siberian wheat fields. 

When civilization moved westward, it was found that wheat 
could be grown in the New World for that cereal readily adapts 
itself to new environments. Starting along the Atlantic coast, 
it pushed farther and farther westward with the march of civili- 
zation, flourishing wheat fields shortly replacing the primeval 
forest. When the wheat line had reached Ohio it was thought 
by many European nations to have reached its limit on American 
soil. Warning was given to the Ohio farmer to care for the 
soil, for with the rapid growth of the United States it was feared 
that the population would soon outrun its wheat production. 
But the wheat line was not to stop ; in the opening up of the 
gieat west, this cereal was again to find favorable conditions for 
its growth. With fertile soil, intellectual farming, American 
enterprise and capital, the United States advanced to one of the 
leading wheat producing nations of the world. 

Still farther north the wheat line was to travel, for it has been 
found in recent years that thousands of acres of land in Canada, 
which were considered waste land, can be utilized for wheat 
growing. This area is nearly three times as great as that used 
for wheat in the United States and the yield per acre is larger. 
As yet only about 5 per cent, of the land is under cultivation. In 
Canada the United States has found a formidable rival. The 
virgin soil is capable of producing enormous crops of superb 
spring wheat, much needed to blend with softer varieties, and 
the men behind the plow in this new wheat-producing country 
both read and think. 

It would seem that with the development of the northwest 
area that wheat had at last reached its limit of cultivation on 



FOOD INDUSTRIES 53 

American soil, but agriculturalists prophesy that the line of 
march will next turn eastward, and that much land now lying 
idle in the eastern and southern sections will in time be utilized 
for the growing of wheat. With the development of drought 
resistant varieties, it is also hoped that more of the semi-arid 
land of the west can be used. 

Of the South American countries, Argentine Republic has 
taken the first place as a producer and exporter of wheat. Here 
are found great natural advantages, extensive prairies very sim- 
ilar to those of Minnesota and the Dakotas, and a moderate 
climate which enables the farmer to work the land almost any 
time of the year. Cheap land, cheap labor and its nearness to 
the sea are also important factors. As in Russia, however, agri- 
cultural methods are still very crude. Land is not well cared 
for and the crops are not properly stored. This latter deficiency 
sometimes affects wheat to be used for milling. With improved 
conditions, Argentina promises to be an important wheat pro- 
ducer. At the. present time more wheat is being raised than is 
necessary for home consumption and large quantities are being 
shipped to Europe. 

While Russia, United States, Canada and Argentina have been 
the most important wheat-producing countries, this cereal can be 
cultivated in a variety of climates. Regions having cold winters 
produce most of the world's wheat, but marked exceptions are 
found in Egypt and India. While Egyptian wheat is of little 
commercial importance to-day, in the age of the Pharaohs and 
during the Roman civilization, Egypt was the wheat center of 
the world. 

Cultivation. — Wheat has always been a cereal that has needed 
the care of mankind; wild varieties are practically unknown. 
Little is told us in history of how the farmer of antiquity tilled, 
sowed and harvested his crop and it was not. until the days of 
the Roman Censor, Cato (234-149 B. C), that any written work 
can be found on the subject of agriculture. The tillers of the 
soil have always been marked by their independence and it was 
not until modern times that we find co-operation among this 



54 FOOD INDUSTRIES 

class of workers. The early farmer worked many times in a 
more or less isolated position, independent and non-progressive, 
teaching his son and grandson to follow in his footsteps. For 
information as to the time of sowing, he had only the deities and 
medicine-men to consult. For centuries the farmer was left to 
work out his own salvation, but with the advance of civilization 
very gradually there arose the botanist, the physicist and chemist, 
the agriculturist and the bacteriologist to assist him in his work. 
So important is the work of the scientist in modern times that a 
single government has been known to spend many millions of 
dollars in the solution of a problem of great importance. Shortly 
after the colonists had established their independence, the sug- 
gestion was made to establish a national board of agriculture, 
but it was not until the days of Lincoln that the National Depart- 
ment of Agriculture was established. The experimentation car- 
ried on by Liebig and other scientists of his time led the way to 
the foundation of experiment stations and in time to agricul- 
tural colleges both in Europe and America. Farmers' institutes 
and societies followed which have now grown to be of national 
importance. 

Hand in hand with the progress of agricultural methods is 
found the progress in motor power. For centuries, undoubtedly 
only the muscular energy of man was used and hand labor is 
still employed to a large extent in India, China, Japan, Egypt, 
Mexico and among many of the Eastern and South American 
nations. Animal power was the first that relieved man from the 
drudgeries of agricultural life, the oxen and the horse being 
almost universally employed. This power is still largely used, 
although as early as 1832 steam power was introduced into Eng- 
land and is now used to a great extent in the Western United 
States and in parts of Germany and Hungary. Much experi- 
menting is being done along the lines of electricity. As in motive 
power, so in implements can the progress of the world be seen 
by a comparison of the sickle as seen on Egyptian monuments 
with the modern combined harvester of the great west. 

Structure of the Wheat Grain. — (Figs. 8 and 9.) Husk. — 
The husk is the outer layer and serves as a covering, thus protect- 






FOOD INDUSTRIES 55 

ing the grain from the attack of its enemies in much the same way 
as the shell does the nut. It is composed largely of cellulose, a 
woody fibrous material not available as human food. 

Bran coats lie directly under the outer covering and are 
composed of several distinct layers mostly cellulose impregnated 
with mineral matter. Here too are found cells full of pigment 
which give to the bran its characteristic color. Directly under- 



&sr<^yv 




/f/V/oa5i«T/^/>f 



G^fVT/T 



Fig. 8. — longitudinal Section Through a Grain of Wheat. 

neath the bran coats is found a single layer of large cells full of 
granular material of a protein nature. This coating completely 
encloses the endosperm and germ and is usually spoken of as the 
layer of aleurone cells or the cerealine layer. 

The endosperm is the largest and most important part of 
the kernel; it is the food part of the grain, the portion utilized 
in the making of ordinary flour. It contains cellulose in the cell 
walls, a small amount of mineral matter, sugar and practically 
all of the starch and protein available as food. Nature designed 



56 



FOOD INDUSTRIES 



it to serve as food for the young plant during the early stages 
of growth. 

The germ is the part from which the plant is to be repro- 
duced. It is more complex in its composition, containing cellu- 
lose and soluble carbohydrates, a large proportion of nitrogenous 
matter and -is rich in oils and mineral matter. 










Fig. 9.— Section Through Part of a Grain of Wheat. 
a — Cellular Structure, b— Starch Granules, c — Protein. 



Value of Wheat. — Its wide adaptation to different climates and 
soils, the ease of cultivation, a quick and abundant harvest, great 
number of varieties and the intrinsic food value, of the kernel 
would be sufficient to make wheat the leading food grain. There 
is still another reason, however, which gives it the rank of 
king among cereals. This lies in the fact that it can be so 
readily utilized in the making of bread. This quality wheat 
shares only with rye and both owe their bread producing power 
to the nitrogenous constituents of the endosperm. 

Osborne and Voorhees in their investigation of the protein 



FOOD INDUSTRIES 57 

content of wheat discovered five distinct proteins, the most im- 
portant of which were gliadin and glutenin, both occurring in 
the endosperm in about the same amount, 4.25 per cent, of the 
entire grain. In the presence of water these proteins unite to 
form gluten. To the peculiar properties of this gluten, wheat 
bread owes its lightness and digestibility, thus giving it first place 
among the civilized nations of the world. The other cereals con- 
tain similar proteins, but not in the right proportion to form 
gluten. With rye flour, gluten can be formed, but it does not 
make as light or as acceptable a loaf. 

Varieties. — Migrating as it has for many centuries, meeting 
different conditions of climate, soil and methods of cultivation, 
wheat is now grown in a vast number of varieties. The United 
States Department of Agriculture after long experimentation 
reduced the number to 245 leading varieties. For the sake of 
convenience wheat can be divided into two large classes, winter 
wheat and spring wheat. 

Winter Wheat. — For the varieties of winter wheat, seeds are 
planted in the fall. Enduring the cold and dampness of the 
winter, a maximum of starch and a minimum of protein are 
developed in the endosperm. Flour made from this wheat is 
soft and does not give enough gluten to make as desirable a 
loaf of bread as spring varieties; yet it was the flour used among 
the so-called civilized nations of Europe until the time of Liebig. 
He was the first to suggest that the right kind of flour was not 
being used for bread-making. Either the process of milling must 
be changed or a new wheat must be grown. His experimenta- 
tion was along the lines of agriculture, to grow a variety higher 
in gluten- forming proteins and lower in starch content. 

Spring Wheat. — Amid much ridicule and after many failures, 
Liebig finally convinced agriculturalists that wheat for bread- 
making should be grown quickly. The temperature was most 
important; dry, hot weather was necessary. Seed if planted in 
the spring would ripen in the late summer or fall and be ready 
for harvesting in August or September. This opened a new era 
in the cultivation of wheat. Soon a hard spring wheat was 
being grown that in time was utilized largely for the making of 



58 FOOD INDUSTRIES ' 

bread. An extended study of its production brought about many 
reforms along agricultural lines which were also felt by the 
growers of winter wheat. These new ideas have enabled farmers 
to grow many varieties of winter wheat higher in their protein 
constituents than the first spring wheat grown. With the devel- 
opment of hard spring varieties, new milling processes were 
found necessary, the development of which was to place the 
miller among the world's manufacturers. 

OLD MILLING PROCESSES. 

The history of wheat would be far from complete without a 
study of milling processes, for the story of wheat must ever be 
intimately connected with the history of the production of flour. 
Here again we find wonderful progress from the rude processes 
of ancient civilizations to the modern roller mills, where can be 
seen the greatest mechanical perfection and whose capacity is so 
great, that they can produce in a single day enough flour to feed 
a small city for an entire year. 

It has been suggested that wheat was first eaten raw, for when 
driven by the pangs of hunger primitive man plucked the wheat 
grain from the stalk, using his teeth as mill-stones, and that it 
was this grinding motion which first gave him the idea of invent- 
ing some rude instrument which would break up the hard berry 
for him. Whether this idea be true or not, we find that various 
forms of apparatus were early invented to make the grinding 
process easier and more effective. All primitive nations reduced 
grain to a meal by means of a hand-stone. 

Hand-Stones. — The form of these stones was varied, but they 
all consisted of two stones, one of which held the grain while the 
other was used for pounding. Fig. 10. The first real grinding 
came into use when the lower stone was given a concave surface 
and the grain being placed within the hollow was rubbed back 
and forth by means of a stone-crusher. These primitive mills 
were always operated by women and were the only mills used 
for some four thousand years. They must have been used by 
the aboriginals of all countries, for large numbers of them have 
been found showing their use among the prehistoric Swiss lake 



FOOD INDUSTRIES 59 

dwellers, the Babylonians, the natives of Ninevah, Assyria and 
Egypt and again in many parts of the New World. So far as 
their structure, detail and finish are concerned, tablets indicate 
that saddle-stones made this side of the Atlantic were superior 
to those of Europe and Africa. Milling was not a separate indus- 
try, but part of the work of each household in which the meal 
was first made then baked into cakes or bread. In some parts 
of the world this operation is still carried on. In sections of the 
northern part of Africa women are the millers, doing their work 
in saddle-stones in much the same way as it was done in the 
earliest historic times. 




Fig. 10. — Hand-stone. 

The Mortar and Pestle. — In time the stone-crusher became 
elongated into the pestle, and the saddle-stone was fashioned into 
the mortar (Fig. n). This marked the step from barbarism into 
civilization. In the mortar period the Geeks substituted men 
as flour-makers. These men were called pounders and in the 
decline of Grecian supremacy, a band of them were led captives 
into Rome. As prisoners of war, these craftsmen were set to 
work at their occupation, grinding and baking. From this fol- 
lowed the custom of using slaves as the millers during the days 
of the Roman Empire. 

Quern. — To the Romans, the ancient world was indebted for 
inventing the first milling machine in which the parts were 
mechanically combined. It was a simple grinding machine giving 
a circular motion and was known as the quern. It consisted of 



6o 



FOOD INDUSTRIES 



two stones, the upper one conforming to the shape of the lower 
upon which it revolved. This upper stone was hollowed out in 
the center, making a hole sufficiently large to receive the grain 
to be ground and had on the side a handle to facilitate the turn- 
ing of the stone. This was the mill in use at the dawn of the 
Christian Era and it still can be found in China, Japan, among 
the Arabs and in some isolated sections of Europe. It was the 
original British flour mill and was destined in that country to be 
the cause of a long political strife. In the early days of the use 
of the quern, women did the grinding, but gradually this work 
was given to slaves and criminals. The first marked improve- 
ment was the grooving of the grinding faces of the stones and 
in time the enlargement of the mill. 




Fig. ii.— The Mortar and Pestle. 



As the quern increased in size another motor power was found 
necessary. This for a long period in many countries was sup- 
plied by cattle, although in parts of northern and western Europe 
the water mill early came into use. With the enlargement of 
the mill and the introduction of different motor power, milling 
passed from the household to the hands of the professional 



FOOD INDUSTRIES 6l 

miller, who at first did the village grinding, then passed to a 
larger district. In some countries wind was used instead of 
water and we find crude wind-mills appearing as early as 600 
A. D. The earliest mills of the United States were operated by 
horse-power, wind and water being later introduced. 

Grist Mills. — While the motor power was being changed, devel- 
opments appeared in the mill-stones and the grist mill came into 
existence. At the end of the eighteenth century this mill, driven 
by either wind or water, was doing a thriving business and it is 
only a comparatively short time since it had to give away to the 
modern roller mill. The structure at first was of few parts and 
the operation was simple. The entire wheat went into the flour ; 
there was no bolting and no separation into grades. The grain 
was at first crudely cleaned by screening, blasts of air being 
passed over the wheat to blow away chaff and lighter particles. 
The wheat was then passed to the mill-stones to be ground. Two 
large stones known as burr-stones were used, the upper one of 
which revolved. They were very heavy, sometimes weighing 
1,500 pounds, and as a rule were imported from France. The 
stones were made up of pieces bound together with bands of 
iron. The inner surface was cut much like a grater and, as it 
wore smooth, the miller would again cut its surface with a steel 
pointed hammer called a mill-pick (Fig. 12). When the two 
stones touched in revolving, it was spoken of as "low milling." 
The grain was fed from above and the grinding motion con- 
tinued until the kernel was ground to a powder. The outer 
husks were torn into shreds and the germ, being plastic, rolled 
over and over until it assumed a cylindrical form. The main 
object of low milling was to make the largest possible amount 
of flour from the grain at the first grinding. The only separation 
made was that of the fibrous part which being lighter could be 
removed by a process of winnowing. As some of the bran was 
pulverized it was impossible to separate it from the flour. This 
gave the flour a dark color and impaired its keeping qualities. 
The germ also being rich in fat in time became rancid. 

During the nineteenth century marked improvements took place 



62 



FOOD INDUSTRIES 



in milling owing to the invention of many mechanical devices. 
Screens and bolters came into use which led to a practice of sift- 
ing and regrinding. The elevator, the conveyor, and the hopper- 
bag were invented and finally the middling purifier. 




Fig. 12. — Roughening Burr-Stones. (Courtesy of the Washburn-Crosby Co.) 



With the invention of the middling purifier, "high milling" 
or the gradual reduction process came into use. Here the stones 
were placed farther apart and the wheat was granulated rather 
than ground, sifted and reground. This gradual reduction being 



FOOD INDUSTRIES 63 

found advantageous, more stages were introduced until a flour 
vastly superior in quality was being placed upon the market. 

When hard spring wheat, however, appeared other improve- 
ments were necessary. When our people visited Hungary, they 
were surprised to find what progress had been made along 
mechanical lines. There the grain was being crushed by means 
of rollers made of porcelain. Americans were very quick to see 
the advantage of this process and a roller-mill outfit was brought 
from Hungary to Minneapolis. Many changes in machinery 
were necessary to meet new conditions, but from 1881 the roller- 
mill rapidly increased and before the dawn of the twentieth cen- 
tury the long honored grist mill had practically disappeared. The 
substitution of rolls for mill-stones was the most radical advance 
ever made in the history of milling. It made possible the opera- 
tion of large flour mills which rank among our great commercial 
industries. 

Disadvanages of Old Processes. — T. They were very slow. In 
the' grist mill the stones were very heavy and could not be driven 
rapidly. 

II. The flour could not be ground as fine. If the stones were 
placed too close together, there was danger of the stone itself 
wearing away and becoming mixed with the flour. 

III. Friction caused heat which would affect enzyme action. 
Starch would be changed to a more soluble form and thus mak£ 
the flour more liable to be attacked by molds and bacteria. 

IV. The keeping quality was very poor. Farmers in olden 
times were in the habit of carrying grain to the mill in sacks and 
carrying home flour. It was said that the farmer was poor or 
that he could not conveniently carry more, but these were not 
the true reasons. He had learned by bitter experience that the 
flour would not keep. It was long before the cause for this was 
known. Old-fashioned flour contained the germ within which' is 
most of the oil of the wheat kernel. Oil becoming rancid soon 
spoiled and ruined the flour. In modern milling processes the 
germ is removed. 



6 4 



FOOD INDUSTRIES 



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CHAPTER V. 



MODERN MILLING AND MILL PRODUCTS. 

In visiting a modern mill a curious device invented for the 
safety of the mill at once strikes the eye of the visitor. This is 




called a dust-collector. The milling of wheat always produces a 
large amount of flour dust which in case of ignition is capable 
of causing a terrific explosion. A disaster of this kind in the 
Minneapolis mills during 1877-78 led to the development of a 
large rotating diaphragm. Fig. 13, which by suction collects flour 
5 



66 FOOD INDUSTRIES 

dust from the various machines used throughout the mill, thus 
keeping the atmosphere comparatively free from dangerous par- 
ticles. - 

To the novice there appears to be innumerable processes in- 
volved in the present day milling of wheat. From the time the 
grain is received, however, until it is packed for shipment as 
flour, the miller has in mind several fundamental objects ; the 
thorough cleansing of the wheat, tempering, separation of the 
middlings and the reduction of the middlings to flour. 

After the grain is received and weighed, it is carried at once 
by means of elevators to the top of the mill where it passes 
through a preliminary process of cleaning. 

Cleansing of the Wheat. — Receiving Separators. — These sepa- 
rators consist of several large sieves for separating from wheat 
such matter as corn, sticks, stones, lint and nails. The sieves are 
kept constantly in motion, are slightly inclined and have holes 
sufficiently large to allow the wheat kernel to pass through. For- 
eign matter being retained passes down the incline and is caught 
in a receptacle. 

Storage Bins. — From the receiving separators, wheat passes 
by conveyors to the storage bins for a reserve supply in advance 
of mill requirements. 

Mill Separators. — When required for milling, wheat is drawn 
to the mill separators. Here are a series of sieves constantly 
shaking for removing dust, dirt, foreign seeds, such as oats and 
imperfect kernels of wheat. Perforations are smaller than those 
of the receiving separators and hold back the wheat while foreign 
and imperfect grains pass through. 

Scourer. — During the sifting processes the dust and dirt have 
not been fully removed. In this machine wheat grains are 
thrown against perforated iron screens. This loosens the dirt 
while a strong current of air passing through draws it out. Some 
scouring machines have brushes attached for brushing and pol- 
ishing the grain. 

Cockle Cylinder. — In the wheat fields there is a common weed 
known as the cockle. It has a small, round, black seed which 



FOOD INDUSTRIES 67 

frequently becomes mixed with wheat and must be removed or 
the quality of the flour will be impaired. As they follow the 
wheat kernel in the receiving and mill separators, a special 
device has been invented for their removal. This is called the 
cockle cylinder. 

Washing Machine. — The washing process is usually not con- 
sidered necessary in mills where scourers or the dry process of 
cleaning as it is called has been used, unless in case of special 
contamination. Some millers, however, prefer to wash all wheat, 
afterwards carrying it through a drying process. 

Tempering. — This operation is carried on to make easier 
the separation of the outer part of the wheat kernel and is 
especially necessary with spring wheat. There are many methods 
of tempering, but all consist in a softening of the grain by means 
of heat and moisture. This may be accomplished by steam or 
water or by the application of both. The grain comes through 
this process having a warm, moist feeling and ready for the 
grinding process. 

Separation of the Middlings. — Roller Mill. — The mill (Fig. 
14) consists of two or three steel rolls about 2 feet long and 
having small teeth on the outer surface for the purpose of disinte- 
grating the berry. They rotate at different speed. The grain 
passes from the rolls, ruptured and flattened and feeling like 
damp saw-dust. The pieces are comparatively large for the re- 
duction by the roller-mill process is gradual. 

Scalper. — As the grain passes from the first roll or "break" 
as it is sometimes called, it consists of bran coats and the interior 
of the wheat which is known as the "middlings." A sifting 
process is next necessary to separate as much of the bran as 
has been loosened. The sieve consists of a series of screens 
usually covered with wire or bolting cloth and is known as the 
scalper. 

Second Roll or Break. — The first separation was very crude, 
for the bran coats still carry much of the interior with them. 
To separate this material, the bran is again passed through 
a roller-mill, the principle of which is the same as the first 



68 



FOOD INDUSTRIES 



"break," but the rolls are set closer together. This tears the 
bran into smaller pieces and frees more of the interior. 

Second Scalper. — This finer product is again sifted and more 
middlings are separated. The bran is now ready for a third 
grinding. The operations of rolling and sifting are carried on 




Fig. 14. — Roller Mills. (Courtesy of the Washburn-Crosby Co.) 



again and again, four, five, six or more times or until all the 
middlings have been obtained. The bran can be used as cattle 
food. 

Reduction of the Middlings. — The middlings obtained from 
the various rolls and sifters are mixed and constitute the part 
that is to be made into flour. There are three important machines 



FOOD INDUSTRIES 



6 9 



met with in this operation — the purifier, the smooth rolls or 
pulverizer and the bolter. 

Purifier. — The middling purifier (Fig. 15) is very complicated 
in its mechanical structure, but simple in principle. It consists 
of different mesh sieves about eight in number. The middlings 
are fed into the machines from above, flow down in a thin sheet 




Fig. 15. — Middlings Purifier for Taking Impurities from the Crushed Grain. 
(Courtesy of the Washburn-Crosby Co.) 



while a current or air fed from below passes upward, carrying 
off small particles of remaining bran. Middlings being heavier 
pass down through the sieves and are caught in a receptacle 
from which they are conveyed to the smooth rolls. 

Smooth Rolls. — These are made of steel, one moving faster 
than the other causing a disintegrating or grinding, motion. 



70 



FOOD INDUSTRIES 



They are really pulverizers. The purified middlings passing 
through the smooth rolls are ground fine ; this is the first re- 
duction to the powder form, although not all is reduced to the 
same degree of fineness. This difference necessitates further 
separation and treatment. 

Bolter. — The bolter (Fig. 16) is a large machine containing 
some 360 sieves made of silk bolting cloth with varying mesh. 
The machine moves with a rotating motion and makes from 




Fig. 16. — The Modern Sieve or Bolter. (Courtesy of the Hecker-Jones-Jewell Milling Co.) 



eight to twelve separations of the material. The fine flour is 
thus separated from the middlings and any remaining bran. 
Separation gives bran, middlings and flour. All coarser parts 
again go through the purifier and smooth roller repeatedly, finally 
being separated by the bolter. When the separation is complete 
the flour is ready to be automatically packed in bags or barrels. 
As it gives a yellow appearance to the flour and impairs its keep- 



FOOD INDUSTRIES 



71 



ing qualities, the germ is removed by bolting and purifying during 
the early stages of the refining process. 

Advantages of the New Process. — I. Increased capacity due to 
greater strength of the parts and consequent greater speed of 
revolution. 

II. Much less power is required to run the machinery on ac- 
count of lesser weight of the parts. 




Fig. 17, 



-Bolting Reel for Separating the Flour from the Bran. 
(Courtesy of the Washburn-Crosby Co.) 



III. Present day process is much cleaner. All foreign matter 
is removed in different siftings, brushing and washing. The 
purifier shows marked progress in cleansing. From the time 
that the grain enters the mill until it is ready for shipment as 
flour, the human hand does not touch the wheat. It is carried 
from place to place, from process to process entirely by eleva- 
tors, conveyors and other mechanical devices. 



J2 FOOD INDUSTRIES 

IV. The separation is much more perfect, only the part or parts 
which are desired are found in flour. 

V. It is much more economical as there is less waste. In the 
old process much that was valuable was carried off in the bran; 
the working over this material again and again saves about 8 per 
cent, on each bushel. The price of flour is cheaper now than in 
former years. 

VI. The rolls do not touch, so small particles of steel are not 
often found in flour. Should there be any, they can be removed 
by passing flour through a magnetic zone. This process Was 
thought necessary in the early days of the roller-mill, 'but it is 
now seldom used. 

VII. Modern flour keeps better, the germ has been removed 
and there is less heat by friction, so fewer undesirable changes 
take place. 

Testing of Flour. — The material is tested at different stages of 
the process and again as the finished product before the flour is 
shipped. Except in comparatively few mills the tests are very 
simple ; usually the quality is told by texture, color and by making 
it into bread. In the large modern mills may occasionally be 
found laboratories where, by chemical testing of the various 
kinds of wheat and flour, scientists are co-operating with the 
millers in the production of finer quality flour. The chemist's 
advice is particularly desirable in the blending and mixing of 
wheat to be used for flour making and in the manufacture of 
cereal products. 

Wheat Blends. — One of the greatest problems that the miller 
has to meet is the production of a uniform quality of flour. A 
poor grading of wheat, or even changes which occur in the 
quality of the grain from season to season, necessitate a careful 
selection of wheats for blends on the mill. Wheats must be so 
blended that the "best qualities of each have the greatest chance 
of being effective in the resulting flour." A careful analysis of 
various wheats as to their starch and protein content, and the 
determination of the quality of the gluten in flour greatly assist 
in the blending of winter and spring wheats of different strength. 



FOOD INDUSTRIES 73 

Successful blending usually insures that which the miller most 
desires, the uniform quality of his products. • 

Adulteration. — Many substances have been used to adulterate 
and cheapen flour. The most common custom has been the 
grinding of foreign matter with wheat or an admixture of starch 
from rye, corn, rice or potatoes. Occasionally, mineral matter, 
such as alum, borax, carbonate of magnesia and various clays 
has been discovered. The United States Department of Agri- 
culture, however, has found that very little adulteration of any 
kind has been practiced in this country. 

Bleaching. — There are three methods of bleaching: (i) by 
treatment in cleaning, conditioning and milling; (2) by storage; 
(3) by artificial means, using electrical or chemical methods. The 
latter custom was for a period forbidden in the United States 
under the Food and Drugs Act, but this question has not yet been 
definitely settled. 

MILL PRODUCTS. 

The leading mills usually put out as many grades of flour 
as the market demands, blending spring and winter wheat of 
different grades. Generally speaking, flour is divided into the 
following grades: (i) first patent; (2) second or standard 
(bakers); (3) straight; (4) first clear; (5) second clear; (6) 
red dog; (7) shorts or midds; (8) bran. 

Flour can also be divided into hard and soft varieties. 

Hard Wheat Flour. — Hard wheat flour is made from, spring 
wheat and represents the type now used almost universally for 
bread-making. It is rich in tissue building elements and gives 
the largest yield of gluten so necessary in the making of a light, 
porous loaf of bread. 

Soft Wheat Flour. — This flour is made from winter wheat and 
has more starch and less gluten than hard wheat flour. It can 
be utilized for bread-making, but it is less nutritious and has a 
poorer flavor. It is often spoken of as pastry flour and is used 
largely for the making of cakes, pastry, crackers and the so-called 
"quick breads" as biscuits and muffins. Soft wheat flour, having 
less gluten, is particularly desirable for these products. 



74 FOOD INDUSTRIES 

Spring and winter wheat flours can be detected by simple 
experiments. Hard or spring wheat flour, on account of its 
gluten content, absorbs more water, has a gritty feeling and is 
deeper in color, having a yellowish rather than a white appear- 
ance. Soft wheat flour, having a large percentage of starch, 
cannot take up as much water; it forms a more pasty dough. 
It is white and has a soft velvety feeling when pressed between 
the fingers. 

Prepared Flour. — This product is a so-called "self-raising" 
flour and has little commercial value. It consists of an ordinary 
wheat flour mixed with corn or rice flour, salt and such in- 
gredients as are found in baking powders. The addition of water 
causes the bicarbonate and acid salt to unite chemically and 
carbon dioxide is given off. This gas in expanding gives a light 
spongy dough. Prepared flour is very convenient but more 
expensive than ordinary flour and baking powder. 

Graham Flour. — In the history of milling there is still another 
side which has received much attention — how much of the wheat 
berry should be utilized as food? 

In primitive milling the entire kernel except the husk appeared 
in the flour, but the refining processes of modern times had 
reduced this to the use of the endosperm only. During the 
nineteenth century there was much discussion in regard to the 
starchy nature of the flour; it contained only 8 per cent, protein 
and 3 per cent, mineral matter. This was the kind of floor that 
started experimentation by Ljebig, which resulted in the produc- 
tion of a harder variety of wheat. Other experimenters were 
also at work on the problem, among them an Englishman by the 
name of Graham. Graham was a great temperance worker. In 
the hope of curing alcoholism, he recommended a change in diet, 
especially advocating an abstinence from meat. To supply this 
deficiency in nitrogenous matter, he suggested the use of bread 
having a higher protein percentage. To obtain such a flour 
Graham suggested the use of unbolted wheat, that is, the use of 
the entire wheat berry. This was practically a return to the 
earlier method of milling and produced a bread darker in color - 
and having a coarser texture. Much agitation of the question 



FOOD INDUSTRIES 75 

followed, but people had learned to prefer white bread, and 
Graham bread, as it was called, never became popular in the diet. 

On investigation by scientists, Graham bread was found to 
contain more protein and mineral matter than white bread, but 
it passed through the intestines more rapidly. At that time, this 
was thought to be caused by the mechanical action of the bran 
on the lining of the intestines ; the bread was carried away before 
the system had extracted all the nutritive matter that it was sup- 
posed to yield. Evidently Graham had not solved the question 
of the starchy flour of his day. Liebig was far more fortunate, 
and in the cultivation of hard wheat a higher percentage of pro- 
tein has been obtained than was found in the original Graham 
flour. 

Entire Wheat Flour. — Just before the introduction of the Hun- 
garian method which so improved the milling process another 
attempt was made along the lines Graham had worked. This 
resulted in the introduction of what is known as whole or entire 
wheat flour. This flour is prepared by a process very similar to 
that used in the milling of Graham flour, except that after the 
cleaning processes the outer bran coats are removed before the 
berry is ground into flour. Entire wheat flour, therefore, contains 
not only the endosperm but the layer known as the aleurone 
cells. This is not present in patent flour, being removed as shorts 
or middlings. 

Upon investigation it has been found that entire wheat bread 
also acts as a laxative, although not to the same extent as Graham 
bread. This is now believed to be due to the peculiar character 
of the protein and mineral matter of the aleurone layer. Possibly 
this is the main cause in Graham bread, although it was for a 
long period believed to be entirely due to the action of the bran 
coats. Much discussion followed as to the relative value of 
entire wheat and patent flour. As regards composition, the 
difference lies entirely in the protein and mineral matter of the 
aleurone layer. Composition, nevertheless, does not tell the 
whole story, for the important question is — how much of the 
wheat kernel is available as food? White flour contains the 
gluten forming proteins which are the most important and be- 



7 6 



FOOD INDUSTRIES 





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«i 3°7-7 grams of bread from 227 grams of Graham flour; b, 302.5 grams of bread from 
227 grams of entire wheat flour; c, 301.5 grams of bread from 227 grams of standard 
patent flour. 




a, Feces from Graham bread; b, feces from entire wheat bread; c, feces from standard 

patent bread. 

Fig. 18. — Bread Made from Entire-wheat, Patent, and Giaham Flours, and Character of 
Feces from Same. (Courtesy of the U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.) 






FOOD INDUSTRIES JJ 

lievecl by many scientists to be all the protein that is available 
as food (Fig. 18). Undoubtedly the claims made by manufac- 
turers as to the value of the whole wheat flour have been greatly 
over-estimated, although its use occasionally gives a pleasant 
change in the diet. 

Gluten Flour. — Gluten flour is a substitute for patent flour, 
much used by people having diabetes or such diseases that the 
'use of starch is undesirable in the diet. It is prepared from an 
ordinary good grade flour. Flour is mixed with water and 
allowed to stand. In time the starch washes out and if allowed 
to settle, a separation can be made. By repeated washings the 
starch content is reduced to 50 per cent. The product is then 
dried and ground to a powder. This process requires time and 
is troublesome and the manufacturer should be paid for his labor. 
The sale price for such flour should be approximately 22 cents 
per pound. A cheaper product is sometimes found on the market 
selling for 7 cents per pound. Manufacturers could not afford 
to put flour through this process and sell it at so low a figure; 
cheap gluten flour is simply a low grade flour containing bran. 

Cereal Department. — Many of the large mills have a cereal 
department where the so-called breakfast foods are manufactured 
by processes quite similar to those of the milling of flour. For 
further information see Chapter VI, Breakfast Foods. 

Semolina. — The preparation from wheat of a coarse meal 
known as "Semolina" is now largely carried by the miller. Sem- 
olina is used in the preparation of macaroni. See page no. 

RYE. 

Rye is a species of grain resembling wheat. During the 
Middle Ages it furnished much of the bread material for the 
great body of people in Europe, and is still 'extensively used in 
Russia and Germany by the peasantry, although it is gradually 
being superceded by wheat. Its cultivation is evidently not 
nearly as old as the other cereals, for there is no mention of it 
in ancient languages. It was known, however, to the Romans 
in Pliny's time. 

Rye is a very hardy plant and will grow in a soil too poor fo'r 



yS FOOD INDUSTRIES 

the majority of other food grains and too cold for the produc- 
tion of wheat. It thrives best and gives the largest yield under 
conditions favorable to wheat. The varieties grown are not 
nearly as great as the other cereals ; the principal types are 
known as winter and spring rye. 

Composition. — The starch content is much like that of wheat, 
a difference being detected only in the microscopic appearance 
of the granules. The nitrogenous constituents also resemble 
wheat as far as gliadin is concerned. There is no protein, exactly 
corresponding to glutenin; therefore, the gluten formed is not 
altogether similar to that prepared from wheat flour. It more 
closely resembles wheat gluten, however, than any other cereal 
and can be successfully used with or without a leavening agent 
for the making of bread. 

Uses. — Rye ranks second as a world's bread material. Rye 
bread is highly nutritious, but is less pleasing to the eye than 
wheat bread. It is dark in color, moist and compact in texture 
and has a peculiar sour taste. An extreme example is the black 
bread or pumpernickle of North Germany. A partial rye bread 
is often made by mixing the flour with wheat flour. This gives a 
greater yield of gluten and makes a larger and more palatable 
loaf of bread. Rye flour is used largely in the United States, 
but chiefly by the foreign born population. 

Rye is excellent for the production of malt used in the dis- 
tillation of spirits, and is much used in Europe for the making 
of gin and in this country for the manufacture of whiskey. 

The bran can be used as a cattle food and the straw for hats 
and in the manufacture of paper. 

Adulteration. — The adulteration of rye flour has been very 
frequent, flour of other cereals being added. Such admixture 
may be detected with the use of the microscope. The rye granule 
as a rule is larger than wheat and frequently has characteristic 
markings as a cross, slit or star. 



CHAPTER VI. 



BREAKFAST FOODS AND COFFEE SUBSTITUTES. 

A canvass of our markets would reveal to-day an endless 
variety of cereals listed under the name of breakfast foods. In 
the early days of America, the only cereals utilized to any extent 
were wheat as wheat flour and corn as samp, hominy, cornmeal 
and hulled corn. In New England the custom prevailed of using 
popcorn as a breakfast food. Bread crumbs were also fre- 
quently toasted and used for that purpose. Oatmeal was later 
introduced by the Irish and Scotch immigration and finally bar- 
ley, rye and rice, but their use has always been more or less lim- 
ited to the foreign born population. 

It was not until the latter part of the 19th century that a new 
interest was awakened in this class of foods. Much experi- 
menting was done on the cereals, new methods of manufacture 
were developed and many new products were placed on the mar- 
ket listed under the name of "The Cereal Breakfast Foods." 
Probably no class of foods has ever been so extensively and in- 
geniously advertised. In a comparatively short time a bewild- 
ering variety could be purchased in the local markets ; many ap- 
peared to remain indefinitely, but a far larger number soon could 
be found only in forgotten places. This constant and ever in- 
creasing variety of breakfast foods is giving to the cereals an 
important place in the dietary which was not known in the past 
history of our country. 

Classification. — Although the list of these foods is so long and 
varied, they fall very readily into four classes. 

/Whole grain. 
Uncooked <^ 

^Part of grain. 
Partly cooked. 
Cooked. 
Malted. 
The grains commonly used in this country are oats, wheat, 
corn and to some extent barley and rice. In the majority of 



8o FOOD INDUSTRIES 

breakfast foods, only one variety of grain appears, at other times 
two or more are mixed. Breakfast foods are prepared directly 
from these cereals, either by mechanical manipulation, culinary 
processes or malting. Many times such changes are brought 
.about in order to make the product ready either for immediate 
consumption or for serving after a moderate amount of cook- 
ing. These changes in composition usually consist in the more 
or less complete rupturing of the starch granule and sometimes 
bringing about its conversion into more soluble forms. Other 
substances of the nature of condiments are often added as maple 
sugar, cane sugar and salt. Particular methods of preparation 
are usually trade secrets. 

Uncooked. — The whole grain variety is best represented by 
oatmeal. This is practically the old-fashioned cereal with mod- 
ern methods of preparation. Ingenious devices have been in- 
vented for the removal of foreign seeds, dirt and other sub- 
stances of an undesirable nature. The roller process is now used 
instead of the old idea of crushing but the rolls are supposed only 
to take off the outer husks. These are removed now quite thor- 
oughly so the amount of cellulose left is much smaller than for- 
merly. Sometimes there is a gradual reduction of the kernel so 
oatmeal may be in the granulated form. This is more common 
in Canada than in the United States. 

Varieties consisting of parts of grain may be found in farina 
and cream of wheat. They are prepared from the hard, granu- 
lated particles of wheat usually taken from the first or second 
breaks in the manufacture of flour. It is the part of wheat from 
which patent flour is made. This class of breakfast foods is 
usually made from hard spring wheat as soft winter wheat is apt 
to break down too finely. 

The uncooked cereals are sold at a lower price as there has 
been less manipulation by the manufacturer. They require, how- 
ever, a longer cooking in the home. 

Partly Cooked. — By far the largest number of the break- 
fast foods of to-day belong to this class ; 90 per cent, of the oat- 
meal consumed in the United States is in this form, on account 



FOOD INDUSTRIES ' 8l 

of its easy preparation in the home. The first of these cereals 
to be introduced was the rolled oats. The preliminary treat- 
ment of cleaning, kiln-drying and hulling is practically the same 
as with the uncooked varieties. The "groats" then pass through 
a process of steaming and while still moist go to heated rolls 
which flatten them into flakes. Additional cleaning processes 
are sometimes used to loosen and remove the fine particles of 
floury matter before the flakes are put into packages. Almost 
all of the grains are now being flaked, while peas and beans are 
also found in the Canadian market. 

Originally this process of steaming was thought to cook the 
grain so thoroughly that only a few minutes were necessary in 
the home. It is now known that the heat has not been applied 
long enough and such cereals need to be thoroughly cooked 
before serving. Less water is needed as much has been absorbed 
in the steaming process. On account of the flattened condition 
of the grain exposing more surface it is not necessary to give as 
long a time as in uncooked cereals. More time, however, should 
be allowed than is stated on the package. 

Cooked. — The ready to serve varieties are numerous and are 
prepared in various ways. The most common forms are : 

i. The flaked cereals closely resembling the rolled variety, but 
heat has been continued for a longer time. They sometimes con- 
sist of one cereal as flaked rice or they may be combinations of 
grain as wheat and barley. Other substances, such as syrup and 
salt, are frequently added and some flaked varieties have passed 
through an additional process of parching or toasting, thus giv- 
ing them a darker color and producing a flavor which is relished 
by most people. Several of these flaked varieties as Cranose 
Flakes and Force were patented at Battle Creek, Michigan, the 
center for the development of breakfast foods, and were among 
the earliest of the ready-to-eat foods. 

2. The puffed variety, such as Puffed Corn, is made by placing 
the grain in sealed cylinders which are kept revolving at a tem- 
perature of approximately 550 F. for an hour. The moisture 
within the grain turns to steam, which on being released suddenly 




82 FOOD INDUSTRIES 

from the cylinders causes an explosion of the starch granule and a 
puffing up of the cereal. This idea was undoubtedly taken from 
the old-fashioned custom of popping corn. A special variety of 
corn is cultivated with a hull strong enough to resist internal 
steam pressure. During the period of heating the starch is 
thoroughly cooked ; eventually the hull bursts and releases the 
cooked starch. 

3. There is but one example of the shredded variety, but so 
popular is it among Americans that it stands in a class by itself. 
"Shredded Wheat Biscuit" as it is called, was the first breakfast 
food to appear on the market made from wheat. Its manufac- 
ture dates from 1895. The whole wheat kernel appears in the 
product and special machinery is needed for its preparation. 
After a thorough cleaning the cereal passes through some 
twenty to twenty-five different processes, the most important of 
which are the following: 1st, the whole wheat is steam-cooked 
for about thirty-five minutes without being flavored then dried 
to remove excessive moisture; 2nd, by special machinery the 
grains are drawn into shreds which are piled in layers, cut into 
miniature loaves and baked. 

4. Variety resembling crumbs, as Grape-Nuts. This break- 
fast food is prepared from wheat and barley ground together, 
made into a flour, kneaded into bread dough and baked. The 
bread is then sliced, toasted and crushed. Grape-Nuts has had a 
very large sale in the United States, Canada and England for a 
number of years and is now gradually being introduced in the 
commercial centers of foreign lands. 

Malted Preparations. — The cereal grains are all rich in starch 
and on account of the hard impervious nature of the walls 
of the starch granules such food is not easy of digestion in the 
raw state. A long slow cooking is necessary not only to rupture 
the granule, but to make the starch more soluble. The digestive 
fluids under ordinary conditions can then readily take care of 
the product. To further aid digestion it was suggested sev- 
eral years ago that the cereal starch be subjected to the action of 
malt. Malt contains an enzyme called diastase which has the 



FOOD INDUSTRIES 83 

power of rapidly liquifying starch after the cell walls have been 
ruptured and then converting it into dextrin and maltose. Mal- 
tose is soluble and several steps nearer the completion of the di- 
gestive process. The amount of starch which has been changed 
to dextrin and maltose depends upon the thoroughness with 
which the malting process has been conducted. Manufacturers 
of these products claim that the process has been thorough and 
these cereals are highly recommended for people with weak di- 
gestion. It is a question whether this claim is always true or 
whether malt has simply been added to give flavor after the 
cereal has been cooked with dry heat. Heat would readily change 
starch to dextrin without the aid of diastase and is a much 
quicker process than that of malting. For information as to the 
malting process see Chapter XI, Alcoholic Beverages. Such a 
cereal has a pleasant taste relished by many people and adds va- 
riety to the diet, but it is not completely predigested. 

Experiments along this line have been carried out at the Iowa 
Experiment Station on a number of malted breakfast foods. It 
is difficult, however, to decide whether the malting process has 
actually been carried out or whether malt has been added, but 
there are strong evidences to make scientific men feel that in 
many cases the cereal has been cooked by dry heat. The term 
malted is often used when malt has simply been added, as malted 
milk. Milk cannot be malted in the sense of adding diastase to 
it ; it can only be reduced to the powdered form then mixed with 
ground barley malt. Much has been said of the advantage of 
using predigested foods in order to relieve the digestive tract 
of part of its normal work. It is a question, however, as to the 
wisdom of taking habitually artifically digested foods. The 
human body under normal conditions is well fitted to perform 
this work for itself and the digestive organs need a certain 
amount of exercise to keep them in proper condition. It has often 
been quoted "A well man has no more need of predigested food 
than a sound man has of crutches." These cereals, therefore, 
should be taken more for their pleasant taste and to give variety 
than for their so called predigested value. 



.84 ' FOOD INDUSTRIES 

Adulteration. — While in advertising much has been said greatly 
over-estimating the virtues of the breakfast foods, the experi- 
ment stations and pure food examiners have discovered very- 
little adulteration. Manufacturers as a rule use good whole- 
some material, processes are modern and conditions at the fac- 
tories most sanitary. Goods are protected while in the dealers' 
hands and are so packed that they can easily be taken care of by 
the householder. 

Comparisons of Old and New Cereals. — The old-fashioned cereals 
were much more economical. Manufacturers did not charge for 
extra manipulation. They were bought when dry, so consumer 
was not paying for water which had been added during manu- 
facturing processes, and as they appeared on the market in bulk 
the box was not included in the weight. 

Uncooked cereals which have been thoroughly cooked in the 
home digest just as easily as predigested kinds and are equally 
nutritious. In these respects they are superior to some varie- 
ties of partly cooked. There is no reason to believe that a pre- 
pared food is more favorable to health than cereal itself prop- 
erly cooked. 

On the other hand, much can be said in favor of the use of 
prepared breakfast foods for they are usually palatable, whole- 
some and nutritious. They save much time, labor and fuel in 
the home and are well suited for the use of the housekeeper, who 
must depend upon the use of the kerosene, gas or electric stove. 
From a sanitary standpoint there has been a great improvement; 
being sold in cardboard boxes well lined with air-tight paper, 
they are protected from air, moisture, dust and micro-organism. 
Unless carefully packed a cereal will not keep well. Moist cli- 
mates make it liable to be attacked by mold growth and it is apt 
to become infested with insects. The chief point against the 
modern cereal is the excess cost. The cost of cereal per pound 
is 2 to 3 cents; cost of prepared cereals 10 to 15 cents. The 
cereals, nevertheless, pound for pound, are the cheapest com- 
plete food that can be found on the market and they form a legit- 
imate and valuable food. 



FOOD INDUSTRIES 85 

COFFEE SUBSTITUTES. 

For several years past another cereal product has been found 
on the market known under the name of coffee substitutes. 
They are in many cases put up by the same manufacturers as 
the breakfast foods and like them seem to be gradually increas- 
ing in number. They are as a rule made of parched grains of 
wheat and barley sometimes mixed with wheat middlings, pea- 
hulls and molasses. Some of the first products also contained a 
low grade coffee added to give flavor. Experiments made at the 
'Connecticut Experiment Station, however, show that the present 
day coffee substitutes are as a rule made from the cereal grain 
as claimed by the manufacturers and that there is now very little 
adulteration of any kind. 

It is claimed that they are harmless, unstimulating, have a 
flavor resembling coffee and yield much greater nourishment at 
lower cost. The color and flavor resembling coffee are largely 
due to the fact that the carbohydrates present are caramelized; 
this also occurs in the roasting of coffee. See Chapter XXI, Tea, 
Coffee and Cocoa. Few coffee lovers will agree that the flavor 
strongly resembles coffee as the coffee bean also contains certain 
volatile bodies which give that beverage the much desired aroma 
and taste. Substitute coffee where coffee has not been added 
is perfectly harmless, unstimulating, and furnishes a beverage 
for those who cannot take coffee. There is little truth, however, 
in the extravagant claims made in advertising matter as to the 
nutritive value of the beverage. This value is hardly worth con- 
sidering, since experiments have shown that skim milk is from 
three to twenty times as nutritious. 



CHAPTER VII. 



UTILIZATION OF FLOUR. BREADMAKING. 

By far the oldest and most important product made from flour 
is bread. The art of breadmaking dates back to the remotest 
ages of mankind and so important is this world's food-stuff that 
it is known almost universally as "The staff of life." With the 
possible exception of milk and eggs, there is no article of the 
diet that is more generally used by human beings and that is so 
well able to sustain life. It is to its constant use that we owe 
the wonderful development along the lines of the cultivation of 
wheat and the equally marked progress found in its milling oper- 
ations. 

In a broad sense bread includes all forms of baked flour, 
whether leavened or unleavened, but our common use of the 
word refers only to those forms in which leavening agents are 
used, other products being spoken of as pilot bread, crackers, 
passover bread and biscuit. Originally all bread was eaten with- 
out leaven for the savage after crushing or grinding his meal, 
baked it in the ashes of his camp fire. The result was a bread 
of hard, tough material not easy for the digestive fluids to act 
upon. This evidently was only the custom among the most 
primitive people, for the use of leaven is very ancient. The 
Israelites while in Egypt used leavened bread, the Greeks were 
known to have cultivated the yeast plant and in the ruins of 
Pompeii an oven was found containing 81 loaves of bread not 
unlike our own. With the use of leaven, a type of bread was 
produced, more easily masticated, better in flavor and more 
easily digested. 

Primitive Breadmaking. — Crude methods of breadmaking can 
be studied not only in the earliest historic records but among 
some of the more primitive nations of to-day. Evidently bread 
was used in the stone age for burnt specimens have been re- 
covered among the Swiss Lake Dwellers ; the pyramids of Egypt 
bear testimony to its early use and again we find evidences of 
bread in the mound tombs of North Africa and Asia. The method 



FOOD INDUSTRIES 87 

of preparation was undoubtedly very simple, probably much like 
that used by some of the wild tribes that inhabit parts of Africa 
at the present time. It is their custom to grind grain between 
two stones, make it into a paste with water, then bake in the 
ashes of a camp fire. 

In different parts of the world similar products can be found. 
Natives of -some of the West Indies prepare a thin round cake 
of meal which is obtained from the cassava root; the product is 
known as cassava bread and furnishes the principal food among 
the common people. In Mexico and Central America, a bread 
known as "tortillas" is prepared by the natives from Indian corn 
by first parboiling the grain to soften it, then crushing by means of 
a stone rolling pin. The paste is baked on a plate of iron. The 
"tortillas" is sold at many of the market places by native women 
and as it is more highly relished when served hot, it is usually 
baked on a small portable charcoal stove at the market. Among 
the well-to-do classes of India, a round, flat cake of unleavened 
bread called "chapatties" is prepared from wheat flour and 
baked on a griddle or on coals. A similar product is made 
by the poorer classes from cornmeal, millet, barley or a coarse, 
hard grain known as ragi. In Palestine and Syria women are 
still the millers and bakers, grinding the meal in small stone 
hand-mills after the same custom that was used long before the 
beginning of the Christian era. The coarse meal obtained is 
made into flat cakes and baked on a hearth, which consists of 
two stones raised on end over which an iron plate is laid to hold 
the bread. Bread made in other parts of the Orient as in Egypt 
and Turkey has quite a different appearance. Here the material 
is rolled or pounded into a flat dough similar to our pie crust; 
two layers are then put together united at the edges and baked 
in a very hot oven. The expansion of the air between these 
layers puffs up the dough and gives the appearance of a large 
loaf. A flat bread of coarse barley meal is also made in the 
northern part of Europe, particularly among the Norwegian 
peasants. 

The progress from these primitive breads to the modern white 
loaf used by the civilized world has needed as much study and 



88 FOOD INDUSTRIES 

experimentation as the development of all other industries. 
Probably the most marked change was the use of leaven and 
it is generally supposed that the world owes this important 
step to the Egyptians. They seemed to have carried the art 
of breadmaking to a high state of perfection, as did also the 
early Greeks, who are known to have had at least 62 varieties 
of bread. From the days of these ancient civilizations mechan- 
ically there seemed to be little progress for centuries, and it has 
been left to the modern scientist to develop the art of bread- 
making. 

Leavened Bread. — So far as the ingredients are concerned, the 
present day bread might be considered a very simple food, for 
there are only four materials needed in this operation — flour, 
water, yeast and salt. Other materials, such as butter, lard, sugar, 
milk, fruit or spices might be added to give flavor and variety, 
but they are not essential to breadmaking. Although the in- 
gredients are so simple, scientists tell us that the chemical changes 
taking place in the preparation of the loaf are very profound. 
In order to understand at least a small part of these changes it 
is necessary to consider the raw material to be used. 

Flour. — At the present time our first-class bakers are using a 
standard flour for breadmaking. It is high in the gluten form- 
ing proteins so will absorb more water and gives a larger, lighter 
and better flavored loaf. For milling processes see Chapter V. 

Water. — It should be free from dirt or contamination of any 
kind. See Chapter II, Water. Until recently it was supposed 
that hardness or softness did not materially affect water to be 
used for breadmaking. According to the research work of Dr. 
Kohman (see page 92) it is now believed that salts of lime stimu- 
late the growth of yeast. In the household many prefer to use 
milk in part or altogether as the liquid. It makes an equally 
light loaf, contains a larger amount of protein and fat, is equally 
digestible, but the dough is slightly longer in rising. 

Salt. — Salt is used in breadmaking for the flavor it imparts, for 
without it the dough would be insipid and as a soluble mineral 
food for the yeast. The amount varies according to the type bread 
and in different localities even with the same variety. It should 



FOOD INDUSTRIES 89 

never be used, however, in such quantities as to be readily tasted 
or the delicate aroma and flavor of the bread will be destroyed. 
It is believed that salt added in small quantity stimulates the 
capacity of the palate for recognizing flavors of other substances. 
This accounts for the importance of salt as a flavoring agent. 

Another reason has been given for the use of salt, but it is 
not now believed to be important. It has the power of control- 
ling some of the chemical changes which take place during fer- 
mentation, so was considered a preservative. In relatively large 
amounts it checks alcoholic and ropy fermentation, but it does not 
inhibit the lactic acid and many other bacteria so its influence 
as a preserving agent is very limited and can hardly be important 
enough to be considered. 

. Yeast. — Yeast was the first leavening agent in the world's his- 
tory and is still by far the most important. How it first came 
to be used is not told us, but the knowledge that wild yeast is 
always present in the atmosphere leaves but little to the imagina- 
tion. Its use might easily have been discovered by accidentally 
exposing dough to the atmosphere and afterwards finding out that 
it made a lighter loaf. From this simple custom of exposing 
dough to the air we might readily trace the practice of saving a 
small amount of raised dough from day to day to act as a leaven- 
ing agent for the next baking. Gradually the art of cultivating 
yeast became the practice among the civilized nations. 

Although yeast has been used as a leavening agent for many 
centuries very little was really known about it until the time of 
Pasteur. . It is now believed that yeast, molds and bacteria be- 
long to a class of substances known as ferments. Until quite 
recently these ferments were divided into two classes: ist, en- 
zymes, such as diastase and ptyalin called unorganized ferments ; 
2nd, yeast, molds and bacteria, known as organized ferments. 
Recent research has revealed that micro-organisms cannot do 
their work as ferments, without the presence of enzymes within 
their cell-walls so that classification no longer can be used. Yeast, 
molds and bacteria are now known to be living organisms. They 
are microscopic forms of plant life, which in their desire for 
food can act upon substances, bringing about many profound 



90 FOOD INDUSTRIES 

changes. Although the nature of these changes may not be 
known to the average house-wife, with the effects of many she 
is quite familiar. Milk after standing for a time, particularly 
in a warm place changes in its nature; it develops acid qualities 
and is spoken of as being sour. Butter under certain conditions 
becomes rancid. Cider when fresh has a decidedly sweet taste 
which in time gradually disappears and is replaced by an unmis- 
takable flavor of alcohol. It is quite common to speak of this 
product as hard cider and every house-keeper knows that should 
hard cider be kept long enough it will turn to vinegar. These 
changes and many others modern scientists have traced to the 
fermentative actions of micro-organisms. 

In the fermentation brought about by the yeast plant two very 
important products are found, alcohol and carbon dioxide, which 
are used throughout the world whether the races are civilized or 
still in a semi-barbarous condition. Alcohol is particularly de- 
sired by all industries preparing stimulating beverages and car- 
bon dioxide is needed for the lightening of bread. It is to the 
manufacturer of alcoholic beverages that we owe the scientific 
study that has been given to the yeast plant. 

When viewed through a microscope yeast is found to consist 
of a single round or oval cell. It is perfectly colorless — belonging 
to a class of plants without chlorophyll — the fungi. Each cell is 
an individual plant consisting of an. outer wall of cellulose filled 
with protoplasm. In this condition yeast is usually spoken of as 
in the resting state. 

Being a living organism yeast is capable of reproducing itself 
should conditions be favorable. The normal reproduction is 
through a process of budding. If a little of this resting yeast is 
put under conditions favorable for growth, a daughter cell or 
bud is formed within the cell. The bud pushing its way through 
the wall rapidly develops, separates from the parent cell, and in 
its turn is able to become a parent cell. When growth is very 
rapid the cells sometimes fail to separate, and adhering, form a 
chain of cells which can easily be seen under the microscope. 
Pasteur states that on one occasion he watched two cells for two 
hours; during that time they multiplied into eight. 



FOOD INDUSTRIES 9 1 

Under favorable conditions some yeasts are reproduced by 
the formation of spores. These spores can resist many adverse 
circumstances, such as a lack of moisture, insufficient food and 
marked changes in temperature. It is to their hardy nature that 
we owe the constant presence of yeast in the atmosphere. In 
this state it has been discovered yeast can live on the earth for 
some little time, until wind carrying them into the air, gives an 
opportunity for settling amid favorable surroundings and again 
growth and reproduction take place. The favorite home for the 
yeast plant is on the skin of grapes and other fruit, a fact well 
appreciated by those engaged in the wine industry. 

The rapidity of the growth is much influenced by surrounding 
the yeast with favorable conditions of temperature, suitable food, 
oxygen and moisture. 

The temperature found to be most favorable is JJ° -95 ° F. 
Below yj° F. the growth is slower and a little above 32 F. it is 
practically arrested. The vitality of the cell is not destroyed *by 
a low temperature for even after exposure to 32 ° F. yeast "will 
grow if the conditions are once more favorable. Above 95 ° F. 
yeast will become gradually weakened by heat until it is finally 
killed at a temperature of 140 F. if the yeast is moist.- Dry yeast 
can stand a much higher temperature, 200 F., without destroying 
life. Although yeast grows most rapidly between 77°-95° F. 
it is sometimes advisable to keep the temperature lower to pre- 
vent the action of undesirable micro-organisms. Brewers in the 
United States and on the continent are now using a lower tem- 
perature although bakers seldom, if ever, take advantage of this 
fact. 

Food for yeast growth must contain carbohydrate, nitrogenous 
compounds and appropriate inorganic matter. The last two 
food principles are necessary for the healthy development of 
yeast for they constitute as in human life, the building material 
of the cells. 

Pasteur discovered that unless these substances are given to 
yeast they act like cannibals, the stronger cells existing on the 
weaker. From our standpoint the carbohydrate is the most im- 



92 FOOD INDUSTRIES 

portant food for the yeast as it is to these compounds that we 
look for the production of alcohol and carbon-dioxide. All 
forms of carbohydrate cannot be utilized by yeast but should the 
compound not be available as food, yeast carries its own enzyme, 
much as we do, which can convert it into a form which can be 
utilized. There are two important enzymes in yeast — invertase 
and zymase. The function of invertase is to convert maltose into 
glucose or sucrose into glucose and fructose by the process of 
hydrolysis : 

CuH^Ou + H 2 — 2C 6 H 12 6 . 

Glucose being an available food for yeast it 'is attacked by 
zymase which breaks down the sugar into alcohol, carbon dioxide 
and a number of other substances in small quantities, such as 
fusel oils, succinic acid and glycerin. 

C 6 H 12 6 — 2C 2 H 5 OH + 2C0 2 . 

According to the research work of Dr. Kohman* carried on at 
tli2 University of Pittsburgh, the effect of adding soluble salts 
of lime and ammonia to the dough results in the increased growth 
and stimulation of the yeast organism to a remarkable degree. 
The Arkady yeast food containing these salts has recently come 
into use. It is claimed that the use of this food has the follow- 
ing advantages: ist, it stimulates the gas production of the yeast 
so that half the quantity of the yeast regularly used will suffice 
for leavening the dough; 2nd, it helps to conserve the gluten of 
the flour thereby giving the dough greater stability; 3rd, less 
carbohydrate is consumed by the yeast because of the smaller 
quantity of yeast used ; 4th, the flavor is improved due to the con- 
servation of the natural substances, such as gluten and sugar in 
the flour, and to the fact that because of the lesser quantities of 
yeast used fewer objectionable by-products are produced; 5th, 
the bread made by the process has less acidity. 

The opinion that the addition of lime is harmful or in any 
sense an adulteration is not in accordance with the results of the 
research work of Emmerich and Loew.f These authorities defi- 

* The effects of the mineral salts contained in natural water upon the fermentation of 
bread, By Henry A. Kohman, Ph. D. 

t Calcium Bread and Its Virtues, By Emmerich and I,oew. 



FOOD INDUSTRIES 93 

nitely state that this is the most feasible method of maintaining 
the lime balance in the diet. It is now the custom of the best 
German bakers to combine with the dough previous to baking 
definite quantities of soluble lime salts in the form of chlorides. 

Micro-organisms also need oxygen, some taking it in the form 
of atmospheric oxygen 2 and others from their food. Yeast 
needs atmospheric oxygen. Pasteur discovered that an abund- 
ance of air caused the plant to develop rapidly, but the evolu- 
tion of alcohol and carbon dioxide was very slow, while in a 
limited amount of oxygen fermentation proceeded rapidly and 
the cell growth was arrested. This idea has been of great bene- 
fit to brewers and to scientific bread bakers who now know when 
to regulate the supply of oxygen. 

In fact one of the largest and best known breadmaking 
concerns in the United States make their bread under a process 
patent, based on the idea of mixing dough in such a manner 
as to inject into the dough an unusual amount of atmospheric 
oxygen. 

Leavening Effect of Yeast. — With these facts in mind the 
leavening effect of yeast can easily be seen. A mixture of flour 
and water readily supplies the moisture and food, flour con- 
taining all the necessary compounds — carbohydrate, protein and 
mineral matter. If this material be kept exposed to the atmos- 
phere and at a suitable temperature, yeast will multiply very rap- 
idly and will spread throughout the dough. As a result of its 
action much carbon dioxide is developed, which in forcing its 
way through the dough becomes entangled in the gluten. The 
latter being elastic stretches, thus giving porosity and lightness 
to the mass. 

Yeast Preparations — Breadmaking. — The oldest method of pre- 
paring yeast was very probably that used by the ancient Egypt- 
ians, who succeeded in obtaining wild yeast and growing it in 
dough. A portion of this dough or "leaven" was always saved 
for the next baking and as it contained yeast cells, again yeast 
could be grown when needed. This simpje custom has been used 
more or less from those early days to modern times and in some 
parts of the world it is still practiced. The home brew used by 



94 FOOD INDUSTRIES 

our ancestors and which can still be found in isolated districts is 
a preparation of this kind. The leaven saved from the last baking 
is mixed with suitable material for the rapid growth of yeast. 
A decoction of hops, potatoes and water was used and when 
the yeast had developed part of this material was added to the 
dough. A similar practice can be found in Scotland at the 
present time. The "barm" as it is called is prepared by allow- 
ing yeast to grow in malt extract and flour before adding it to the 
bread dough. In some parts of the continent particularly in 
France and Switzerland, this ancient method is still used by 
bakers and poor country people. The bread has a sour taste, 
which is relished by many, due to the development of lactic and 
butyric acid bacteria. Some authorities consider bread made 
in this way more healthful as the acids developed are supposed 
to assist in digestion. The taste, however, is disagreeable to the 
majority of people and the best authorities of our country con- 
sider that a high grade commercial yeast is more reliable and 
much more convenient. 

Brewer's Yeast. — One of the earliest commercial yeasts was 
obtained from brewers. During the fermentation of beer, es- 
pecially where a high temperature is used, much of the yeast is 
carried to the top of the vats by the escaping carbon dioxide. 
It is called by the brewer top yeast. This yeast was skimmed 
from the top of beer and was sold in the liquid form. Little 
care was given to sanitary conditions and the product was thor- 
oughly unreliable. It was dark in color and carried with it the 
flavor and aroma of the hops. Bread made from it was some- 
what smaller in volume, due to slow fermentation, dark in color 
and had a faintly bitter flavor. It has now almost entirely been 
superseded by distiller's yeast, which at the present time is sold 
in the form of the compressed yeast cake. 

Compressed Yeast Cake. — Distiller's yeast is lighter in color 
and possesses a rather pleasant taste. At the time that fer- 
mentation is most energetic the yeast is skimmed off the surface 
and is conveyed by wooden drains to sieves. All foreign matter 
is removed and the strained liquid passes on to the settling cis- 
terns. Here the yeast settles and the liquid is drawn off. The 



FOOD INDUSTRIES 95 

yeast is generally mixed with starch and put into presses which 
squeeze out much of the moisture, leaving a dough-like paste. 
Starch is said to be added because it permits more water be- 
ing removed, which greatly aids the keeping quality. In recent 
years, however, the foremost yeast manufacturers of our country 
have discovered that by strict laboratory control and the develop- 
ment of pure culture, compressed yeast of great strength and uni- 
form quality and flavor can be successfully and commercially 
made without the addition of starch. The latter, in fact, is now 
looked upon as an adulterant. Yeast is then partly dried, made 
into cakes, and carefully wrapped in metal or waxed paper to 
protect it from bacteria. This is the best all-around yeast that is 
used at the present time. It is more expensive, but will work 
evenly and quickly, and will give a finished loaf of bread with a 
good volume and texture and having an agreeable taste, odor and 
color. A good quality should be slightly moist, possess a creamy 
white color and break with a fine fracture. 

Dried Yeast. — There is one great disadvantage to compressed 
yeast; even under favorable conditions it will only keep fresh 
for a comparatively short time. The yeast begins to die and other 
forms of micro-organisms soon develop, giving rise to unde- 
sirable flavors in bread. For people who live in isolated dis- 
tricts, another type of compressed yeast called dried yeast is put 
on the market. More starch has been added and more water 
removed. Although a low temperature is used to dry the yeast 
some of the cells are undoubtedly killed, so it is not as satisfac- 
tory a form to use as fresh yeast. On account of the dryness, 
however, decomposition cannot set in and some of the yeast and 
spores will remain alive for a considerable length of time, and 
when mixed with water and a soluble carbohydrate will slowly 
begin to grow. 

Salt Rising. — This old and crude method of leavening, for- 
merly imputed to wild yeasts, has been definitely determined to 
be due to the growth and development of certain gas forming 
types of lactic acid bacteria. Unlike the yeast these forms de- 
velop a mixture of hydrogen and carbon dioxide, at the same time 
producing lactic acid which accounts for the difference in flavor 



96 FOOD INDUSTRIES 

so highly regarded by some people. This form of leaven in the 
clry state has now become a commercial product and can be 
bought similarly to yeast preparations. 

Object in Breadmaking. — Given the necessary ingredients, it is 
the baker's object to produce a result which will be pleasing to 
the sight, agreeable to the taste, easy of digestion and nutritious. 

Steps in Breadmaking. — Fermentation. — The methods of 
fermenting dough are somewhat varied but there are only three 
in common use: 1st, straight or off-hand dough; 2nd, ferment 
and dough; 3rd, sponge and dough. No matter which method 
is chosen the best material possible to procure should be used, 
the ingredients should be thoroughly mixed and in proper pro- 
portions, and the greatest cleanliness should be observed through- 
out the entire operation. 

Straight or Off-hand Dough. — With this method all of the 
ingredients while luke-warm are thoroughly mixed. Care should 
be taken that the proper proportions are used ; too little yeast will 
give a badly raised dough and too much will cause excessive gas 
which stretches the gluten beyond its limit, causes it to break open 
and the gas to escape, thus making a heavy, soggy loaf of bread. 
The dough is then set aside to rise in a moderately warm tem- 
perature (77°-95° F.). It should be kept as free from drafts 
as possible and should be left exposed to the atmosphere or 
• lightly covered, as the presence of oxygen aids the growth of 
yeast. As fermentation proceeds the dough increases in bulk and 
becomes light and porous. When sufficiently aerated with gas 
it is thoroughly kneaded by hand or machinery. This operation 
causes the escape of waste gases, incorporates fresh air, revives 
the activity of the yeast, has a toughening effect on the gluten 
and assists its elasticity. The dough is shaped into loaves, al- 
lowed to ferment again and then baked. Bread made in this 
way takes from 3 to 10 hours according to the amount of yeast 
and the temperature used. There are several distinct advantages 
to this method — all labor of sponging and extra manipulation is 
saved and bread is produced in less time. It is far more con- 
venient when bread is made at home. 

Ferment and Dough. — Among many bakers the first step 



FOOD INDUSTRIES 97 

is the preparation of the ferment ; that is, the cultivation of the 
yeast by giving it appropriate food. Potato mash is still largely 
employed for food, also raw and scalded flour, malt extract and 
commercial yeast foods. The ferment takes about 5 hours, but 
is still used by bakers for two reasons : first, it enables an origin- 
ally small amount of yeast to do much work; second, the young 
yeast cells are very vigorous. This yeast is then incorporated 
with water, flour and salt and a dough is made similar to the 
straight-dough method. 

The Sponge and Dough Method. — In this process the dough 
is made in two stages by allowing the yeast to work for a 
period in a portion of the flour and water. Several different 
sponges are used — the quarter, the third, the half and the three- 
quarter, according to the amount of flour added. Fermentation 
proceeds from 2 to 12 hours and the remaining material is incor- 
porated. Care should be given to mix the second portion of 
flour thoroughly with the sponge or the bread will contain lumps 
on which the yeast has had no opportunity to work. The dough 
as it is now called is allowed to rise again, is kneaded into loaves 
and baked. Although it takes longer and requires more manipu- 
lation the sponge method has many advantages : first, on account 
of its slackness, it requires much less yeast (this is a considerable 
saving where bread is made in large quantities) ; second, hard 
wheat flour on account of its absorbing power does not produce 
a desirable loaf of bread when made by the off-hand method — a 
sponge gives a lighter and more elastic loaf ; third, bread made 
with a sponge is usually finer in texture and has a better flavor; 
fourth, it keeps better; fifth, some believe that less work is in- 
volved in mixing as the sponge softens on standing. 

Baking. — The dough should be evenly baked in an oven 
ranging from 450 to 550 F. according to the variety of bread. 
The heat should not be too great at first or the bread will harden 
too quickly. The gas in the interior will not have a chance to 
expand the gluten and the result will be a heavy bread. In some 
bakeries the temperature is gradually raised during baking. The 
effect of this heat is to rapidly expand the gas which in its turn 
expands the gluten and swells the loaf. As gluten is protein in 
7 



98 FOOD INDUSTRIES 

nature it very shortly coagulates and thus holds the loaf in shape 
after the escape of the gases. The surplus moisture, the alcohol 
and acids volatilize. In time the starch granules are ruptured 
and become suitable for human food. On the outer portion or 
crust on account of the intense heat, most of the starch is dex- 
trinized and a small portion is converted into glucose. The inner 
part or crumb is not subjected to such a high temperature, since 
dough is a poor conductor of heat. The interior is not heated 
above the boiling point of water so the changes in the carbohy- 
drate grow less as it approaches the center of the loaf. The 
yeast, bacteria and enzymes present in the dough are destroyed 
during the baking. This sterilizes the bread. 

Cooling. — As soon as completely baked, the loaves of bread 
should be placed on sieves or bread-racks so that the air can cir- 
culate around them until they are thoroughly cool. This gives the 
gas and steam within the loaves an opportunity to escape and pre- 
vents the bread from becoming damp. 

A Modern Bread Factory. — In strong contrast to the old- 
fashioned cellar bakery with its dingy and many times unsanitary 
surroundings, the modern bread factory has arisen. Here can 
be found bread being manufactured on a large scale in a well 
ventilated, sun-lighted building equipped with facilities as nearly 
perfect as modern science can suggest. An electric plant for 
lighting the building and running the machinery, a cold storage 
plant and hot water system for regulating temperatures, elevators, 
conveyors and slides for carrying material from one part of the 
building to another, can be seen. Many curious devices in 
machinery have been invented, so that the human hand needs 
scarcely touch the product from the time that the raw materials 
enter the building until the finished loaf is ready to be carried 
out for delivery. Conditions insuring thorough cleanliness are 
carefully sought and the bread is made amid thoroughly sanitary 
surroundings. Only a high grade flour, good yeast, distilled 
water and the best available material for shortening are used. 
Before being utilized the flour is passed through a sieve con- 
taining rotary brushes and a surprising amount of wood, lint, 
dust and other foreign material is removed. When needed, 



FOOD INDUSTRIES 



99 



the sifted flour passes automatically to electric bread mixers, as 
does also the required amount of water, dissolved yeast, salt, etc. 
As the bread mixer revolves, filtered air is fed to the dough in 
order to hasten the action of the yeast and give whiteness to the 
product. The mixing operation requires some 25 minutes. The 
mixer is then turned over and the dough drops into the raising 




Fig. 19. — Flour Sifter and Blender. 
(Courtesy of Ward Baking Co.) 

trough, where it is allowed to rise in a sunny, white-tiled room 
for 3 hours. As soon as the dough is in proper condition, the 
bottom of the tub is removed and the dough proceeds by gravity 
through an opening in the floor to an apartment below, where it is 
automatically carried to a machine which weighs and cuts it into 
uniform pieces. It passes on a moving platform in separate 
loaves to a number of kneading devices which roll and press it 
into shape. The loaf travels forward and backward on a con- 



IOO 



FOOD INDUSTRIES 



veyor, where it is allowed to rest before it drops into a pan ready 
for the second rising. The pans are removed to an apartment 
heated to no° F., and the bread is allowed to rise. It is then 
baked in a traveling oven at a temperature, of 450-550 F. After 
being removed from the oven, the bread falls on racks from which 
place it proceeds by an incline to the floor below where after 
cooling, it is wrapped and sealed in paraffin paper. 




Fig. 20. — Mixing Machine with Dough About to be lowered Into Raising Trough 
(Courtesy of Ward Baking Co.) 

Souring and Its Prevention. — The souring of bread is due to 
the development of lactic and butyric acid ferments. This may 
be caused by a poor grade of yeast which is apt to contain un- 
desirable bacteria, by a poor flour which on account of the 
presence of certain nitrogenous bodies gives a medium particu- 
larly suitable for bacterial growth, by dirty vessels, by allowing 
the sponge to proceed too far thus giving undesirable ferments an 



FOOD INDUSTRIES 



IOI 



opportunity to develop. It may be prevented by using a high 
grade flour, a good yeast and by thorough cleanliness. Too. high 
a temperature during fermentation and prolonged raising of the 
sponge and dough should be avoided. Sudden changes in tem- 
perature should be guarded against. 

Adulteration of Bread. — Alum has been largely used and evi- 
dently for a long period. English history speaks of Henry VIII 




Fig. 21.— Machine for Dividing Dough Into Equal Parts of Equal Weight 
(Courtesy of Ward Baking Co.) 

ordering his baker to be hanged for using alum in bread intended 
for the King's table. This subject has been much discussed of 
late years and its use has been finally prohibited by the Pure 
Food Law. As a rule alum was used with a poor grade flour 
or with a flour that had been kept for a long time under unfa- 
vorable conditions. When flour deteriorates the protein some- 
times changes, becoming more soluble and will not make a good 



102 



FOOD INDUSTRIES 



dough. Alum will cause it once more to become insoluble and a 
better gluten will be formed. The loaf is larger, less sodden, 
whiter and gives the appearance of a better grade flour. 

Losses in Fermentation. — In the preparation of bread by means 
of yeast, appreciable losses of dry material must necessarily take 
place. This is caused by the formation of volatile matter during 
fermentation, such as carbon dioxide, alcohol and acids. They 




Fig. 22. — Front View of Dough Divider. 
(Courtesy of Ward Baking. Co. 

are driven off, to a large extent, at the temperature of baking, 
so have no nutritive effect. Estimates of this loss have been 
made and as a rule it has been found to be approximately 2 per 
cent, although it may be much higher under unfavorable con- 
ditions. Tiebig calculated that the loss in Germany daily would 
supply 400,000 persons with bread and it has been estimated that 
300,000 gallons of alcohol are annually wasted in the bakers' 



FOOD INDUSTRIES 



IO3 



ovens in London. There has been much experimenting and large 
sums of money expended in trying to recover this alcohol but 
without success from the baker's standpoint ; the bread was 
found to be dry and unpalatable. This inevitable waste has led 
to attempts to convert dough into a porous form by other methods 
than that of fermentation. Many mechanical and chemical proc- 
esses of aerating dough with C0 2 have been invented, but in 




Fig. 23 



-Machine for Wrapping Bread with Paraffin Paper. 
(Courtesy of Ward Baking Co.) 



England and the United States, only two have met a slight suc- 
cess. 

Chemical Process. — Use of baking powders. See Chapter 
VIII. 

Aerated Bread. — In this process cold water is saturated with 
C0 2 . This highly charged water is then mixed with flour under 
pressure in air"-tight chambers. When the pressure is lowered 



io4 



FOOD INDUSTRIES 



the dough is forced out and blown up by the expanding gas. It 
is cut into loaves quickly and baked. This bread is very light, 
porous and involves no waste of material but unfortunately it has 
an insipid taste due to the absence of the by-products of yeast, 
so has never met with great success in the United States al- 
though it is still made in Great Britain. 




Fig. 24. — Bread After I,eaving Wrapping Machine. 
(Courtesy of Ward Baking Company.) 

THE CRACKER OR BISCUIT INDUSTRY. 

Those products formerly known in the United States as crack- 
ers and in England as biscuit originally included only varieties 
of unleavened bread, such as the commonly known pilot bread, 
ship's biscuits and water crackers, but the march of progress in 
the last half century has greatly enlarged the field of this in- 
dustry until it now includes many articles formerly considered 
cakes, pastry and confectionery. 

In both this country and in England the manufacture of bis- 



FOOD INDUSTRIES 



I05 



cuit has been greatly improved and the output tremendously in- 
creased, one American firm alone manufacturing some four hun- 
dred or more varieties. Great manufacturing concerns have 
been attracted by this field of business and have by their 
efforts to produce a perfect product brought about improvements 
resulting in cleanliness and sanitation in the manufacture of these 
products. The dirty and unsanitary cracker bin and barrel of the 




A B C 

Fig. 25. — Baking Floor for Sponge Goods. (A) Steel Dough Cars. (B) Soda Cracker 

Machines. (C) Upper Parts of Reel Ovens. (Courtesy of 

National Biscuit Company.) 

grocery store, such as were formerly used when crackers and bis- 
cuit were sold only in bulk form, the chance for the small dealer 
to deceive, the many varieties of cheap scales, and such numerous 
handlings as were necessary to deliver the goods to the purchaser 
are all things of the past. The public now receives its biscuit 
in moisture and dust-proof packages, packed and sold under the 
best possible conditions and free from the touch of human hands 
on their journey from the factory to the table of the consumer. 



io6 



FOOD INDUSTRIES 



Raw Material. — There is no food industry which uses such an 
enormous variety of foodstuffs and from so many parts of the 




-Flour Bolter, Blender and A. tomatic Weigher. (Courtesy of National 
Biscuit Company.) 




Fig. 27. Baking Floor for Sweet Goods showing Sweet Cracker Machine and 
Pans being placed in the Oven. (Courtesy of National Biscuit Company.) 

world as the biscuit industry. The basic ingredient is a flour; 
the ideal flour for most biscuit is one made from rich soft winter 



FOOD INDUSTRIES IO7 

wheat although for special purposes Graham, whole whsat, corn, 
rye and arrowroot flour are used. Oatmeal and other cereal 
products enter into the manufacture of special kinds of biscuit. 
Eggs are used in many of the sweet varieties of crackers and 
cakes, and butter, lard, coconut and other vegetable oils form the 
principal shortening. About twenty different kinds of sugars may 
be used according to the purpose for which they are intended. 
These range in grain from the 4X sugar which is an impalpable 
powder up to the crystallized sugar, whose grains may be a quar- 
ter of an inch long. Some of the sugar comes from the refineries 
while other kinds are brown sugars straight from the plantations 
and impart to the biscuit a rich taste of molasses which is so 
delicious. High grade molasses itself and honey are also largely 
used, while whole milk or filtered water supply the moisture for 
the dough. 

The above are the basic ingredients used in the manufacture 
of biscuit. In addition there is almost an infinite variety of ac- 
cessories, such as fruits and nuts of all kinds, flavors, spices, 
cheese, chocolate, etc. These are worked into the biscuit in many 
different ways, for example : The fruits may be mixed with 
the dough or they may be used as a topping; the dough may be 
rolled into thin sheets with a layer of fruit between forming a 
sort of fruit sandwich; the fruit may be made into a jam and 
applied to the cake after it is baked. Similar variety of proc- 
esses may be used in the case of nuts, spices, chocolate and other 
accessories. 

Manufacturing. — The manufacture of biscuit may be divided 
into sponge, sweet and iced goods. The sponge goods are those 
commonly known as soda crackers, oyster crackers and the like. 
These are all raised with yeast. The greatest care must be taken 
throughout the process to keep all the conditions exactly uniform. 
In modern factories the temperature of the room in which the 
doughs rise is kept at about 8o° F. If the temperature falls be- 
low this a valve is automatically opened which introduces warm 
air to all parts of the room. In the summer time cold air is 
automatically supplied in the same way. Even the humidity of 
the room is mechanically controlled in some cases. This great 



I05 FOOD INDUSTRIES 

care is necessary in order to insure a uniformly high grade prod- 
uct. 

The first operation consists in taking the temperature of the 
flour. From this the temperature of the water can be calculated 
which will bring the sponge after mixing to a temperature of 
about J2° F. The yeast, flour and water are then mixed by 
machinery and the product which is called a sponge is allowed 
to lie in the proofing-room twelve hours or more. During this 
time the yeast acting on some of the carbohydrates of the flour 
produces carbon dioxide gas which raises the sponge to about 
three times its original size; at the same time the gluten is made 
more soft and elastic. The peculiarly appetizing taste of soda 
crackers which can be developed in this way and no other, is 
formed at this time in some unknown manner. After reaching its 
maximum height some of the gas escapes and the surface of 
the sponge drops several inches. It is then ready to be mixed 
into the dough. Soda, salt, shortening and more flour are added 
and the whole is remixed for about five minutes. It is then al- 
lowed to stand several hours more. During this time the soda 
neutralizes the acidity developed by the yeast and the whole dough 
rises again. When ready it is wheeled in its clean steel car to 
the dough brakes where by being rolled and folded between great 
rollers it is kneaded into the proper thinness, and is made ready 
for the machine which further shapes and stamps it into the 
form in which it is baked with the design and trade mark im- 
pressed upon the dough. It is now ready for the oven, where 
it is baked at a temperature of from 500 to 6oo° F. Fig. 25. 
After being baked and taken from the oven the biscuit are cooled 
and packed. 

The variety of sweet goods is almost infinite, depending not 
only on the ingredients used but upon the stiffness of the dough 
and the method of treating it. Some doughs are made with very 
little wetting. These doughs are rolled out, cut and baked on 
machines such as those described for sponge doughs and form 
the familiar hard sweets. Other kinds of doughs are much softer, 
ranging in stiffness down to that of heavy cream. These latter 
are the cake doughs. The dough is poured into the hopper of a 



FOOD INDUSTRIES IOO, 

so-called "wire cut-cake machine" and is forced thence through 
small holes. When the proper amount has come through it is 
cut off automatically by a moving wire and falls on a pan which 
is supported on a travelling apron below. This pan may be sent 
immediately to the oven or the pan with the unbaked dough 
upon it may be dipped in sugar, nuts, raisins, etc. 

The ovens used in the biscuit industry are. of a type developed 
especially for this industry and are of very interesting construc- 
tion. They are large hollow structures with a capacity of about 
that of an ordinary room, but are nearly two stories in height. 
The walls are of brick, several feet in thickness. The oven is 
heated by hard coal, fuel oil or natural gas from two fire boxes 
located in the bottom of the oven. The oven heats up slowly 
owing to the great thickness of the walls, but once heated through 
the bricks radiate a steady, "solid" heat on the crackers from 
every side. This is very necessary in order to secure a thorough 
even bake. Movable shelves are hung inside the oven on a struc- 
ture similar to a gigantic "Ferris Wheel" which can be started 
and stopped automatically, bringing the shelves one after the 
other to the oven's mouth which is situated in the upper part. 
As each shelf comes to the oven's mouth pans full of baked 
goods are withdrawn and their places are taken by other pans 
full of fresh dough. These pans are carried on the movable 
shelves around the circumference of the "Ferris Wheel" inside 
the oven and are then brought back again to the mouth of the 
oven thoroughly baked. 

In the icing room, marshmallow, jams, jellies, chocolate and 
other sweetmeats are applied to the already baked goods. The 
work is now being done more and more by machinery, thereby 
insuring perfect cleanliness and uniformity. These jellies, marsh- 
mallows, etc., may be deposited on the top of the cake or the 
whole cake may be dipped into them so that they form a complete 
covering. The cakes then go to the trolleys. These are large 
structures equipped with many hundreds of movable trays or 
wires, the cakes either resting on the trays or pinned on to the 
wires, are carried up and down and back and forth throughout 
the length of the trolley until they are thoroughly dried and 



IIO FOOD INDUSTRIES 

ready for packing. The trolleys, as a rule, are shut in to protect 
them from dust and dirt; temperature and moisture within are 
carefully controlled. 

Biscuits of all kinds, as soon as they are finished are packed 
in the modern moisture- and dust-proof packages. These may 
be cartons lined with waxed paper and carefully wrapped, or 
the familiar glass front can. They are then ready to start, often 
the same day that they are packed, on their journey to the ulti- 
mate consumer. 

MACARONI. 

In the world's food products made from wheat, macaroni has 
occupied an important place in the diet of several nations. The 
Japanese claim to be the original manufacturers but whether this 
be true or not, the Europeans first heard of it from the Chinese 
who had been using it for a long period. Although the Germans 
were the European discoverers of macaroni, it was the Italians 
who early learned to appreciate its virtues and to adopt it as a 
national food. By the 14th century, Italy was the only European 
nation that understood the preparation, and for nearly four hun- 
dred years she held the secret of the method of manufacture. 

The Italian macaroni industry had its birth in Naples from 
Whence it spread throughout Italy and finally to other parts of 
Europe, but it was not until the latter part of the 19th century 
that this product could be equalled in any other country. It was 
finally introduced into France where it has become an important 
industry. Although the United States is still a large importer of 
macaroni, there has been a great growth in the macaroni industry 
since the cultivation of durum wheat in our own northwestern 
states. 

In the preparation of macaroni a hard, very glutenous wheat 
is used, called macaroni wheat. The early Neapolitan manufac- 
turers won their fame on account of the excellent quality of the 
Italian wheat. Unfortunately the cultivation of native wheat 
is now sadly neglected in Italy. Russia for a long period has 
produced some of the finest varieties. They were grown exten- 
sively for macaroni-making long before Liebig started his experi- 



FOOD INDUSTRIES III 

mentation on hard wheat as a breadmaking material. Algerian 
durum wheat, the wild goose wheat of Canada and Argentina 
macaroni wheat are also largely exported for this industry. 

Manufacturing Processes. — In the macaroni manufacture the 
first step is the preparation of a coarse meal called "semolina" 
or "semola." Wheat is cleaned by steeping in water, dried by 
heat, ground and sifted. The husks and much of the starchy 
flour are separated leaving the light amber, glutenous part re- 
sembling a meal rather than flour. As a rule manufacturers 
of macaroni buy their semola from millers, rather than do their 
own grinding. The best macaroni is made by blending various 
grades of semola much as flour is blended for breadmaking. 
The semola is then put into an iron mixer, moistened with the 
smallest possible quantity of hot water and thoroughly mixed 
by machinery until the dough has a smooth and tough appear- 
ance. The mass is kneeded for a few minutes and is transferred 
to a cylinder. Pressure descends upon the dough, forcing it in 
strings slowly through the perforated plate which forms the 
bottom of the cylinder. The form of this plate fixes the char- 
acter of the macaroni. If the holes contain a steel pin or conical 
blade the dough takes the form of a pipe-stem and is known as 
tube macaroni. Holes without pins give solid macaroni known 
as spaghetti and vermicilli. A flat opening sometimes takes the 
place of a round hole and ribbon forms are made. When the 
strings of paste are the proper length they are cut either by 
hand or by automatic rotary knives. The macaroni is then 
thrown over reed poles to dry. When the weather is fine it is 
left exposed to the sunlight for about two hours. When partly 
dry, it is put into underground vaults and kept in this damp 
place for about 12 hours or until the dough has lost some of its 
brittleness and is once more pliable. The poles over which the 
macaroni hangs are then carried to storehouses where they re- 
main until the strings have a horn-like toughness. They are 
now ready to be inspected, sorted, weighed and packed for ship- 
ment. In case of bad weather the macaroni is dried under cover 
for a longer period. The yellow color is produced by the use of 
saffron or of a coal tar dye. 



112 FOOD INDUSTRIES 

Domestic Macaroni. — There is a constantly increasing demand 
for macaroni made in the United States. The hardest variety of 
wheat is used especially the hard wheat of Kansas and that 
grown in the semi-arid lands. The drying, especially in the eastern 
states is done entirely indoors, the lengths being hung over 
wooden rods in heated apartments through which currents of air 
are driven. The product is very satisfactory and the sanitary 
conditions connected with the manufacture are largely in advance 
of those under which many imported brands are produced. 

Judging Quality. — A good quality of macaroni should have a 
soft yellowish color, should be rough in texture, elastic, hard, and 
should break with a smooth, glassy fracture. In boiling it should 
double its original size and should not become pasty or adhesive. 

As a Food. — Macaroni is a very palatable and nutritious food. 
It can be kept for a length of time without deterioration and is 
comparatively inexpensive. Being high in protein it readily re- 
places meat in the diet. 



CHAPTER VIII. 



LEAVENING AGENTS. 

Early in the history of the human family, it was found that 
in order to make bread easy to masticate and more readily digest- 
ible, it must be puffed up before it was baked. This could best 
be accomplished by a gas with heat to expand it. C0 2 was the 
first gas used, obtained through the agency of yeast, and nothing 
has ever been found that can equal its action as a leavening agent. 

Advantages. — (i) CO, is generated by the action of the yeast 
enzyme on the carbohydrate of the meal or flour, so no foreign 
substance is introduced into the dough; (2) The slow liberation 
of the gas causes it to have its full effect as a leavening agent ; 

(3) The by-products produced during fermentation give a 
pleasant taste; (4) Bread made by yeast is more easily digested. 

Disadvantages. — ( 1 ) The time required for leavening is long ; 
(2) Careful watching and studying of favorable conditions for 
the growth of yeast are necessary or the result will be sour or 
sodden bread ; (3) It involves a loss of carbohydrate in the form- 
ation of products which are volatile at the baking temperature ; 

(4) As yeast is a living organism, it is impossible to calculate the 
amount of gas produced. 

Chemical Agents. — The necessity of sometimes raising bread 
quickly has led to a study of chemical agents which will produce 
C0 2 . With this method the gas is liberated in the presence of 
water by the action of an acid or acid salt on a bicarbonate, usu- 
ally the sodium compound. The salt resulting from the chemical 
action of the acid and base remains in the dough. 

Advantages. — 1. The time is shortened. In a few minutes a 
light, spongy dough can be prepared which would require hours 
by the use of yeast fermentation; (2) No loss of the carbohy- 
drate is involved; (3) It is possible to calculate the amount of 
gas which may be produced if the composition of the chemical 
reagents is known. 

Disadvantages. — ( 1) The taste is not as good as that of bread 
raised by yeast; (2) The product is not as readily digestible; (3) 



114 FOOD INDUSTRIES 

The residue resulting from the chemical action remains in the 
loaf. As these residues have no nutritive value, they can only be 
regarded as waste products, and may retard digestion. 

Early Use of Chemical Agents. — Long before the scientific inves- 
tigation along the line of these reagents was begun, the house- 
wife was making use of the same principle in the utilization of 
sour milk and saleratus to lighten dough. Although this method 
was very effective, it had two serious drawbacks: r. The acidity 
of the milk was apt to be over-estimated. Lactic acid is caused 
by the action of bacteria in milk on the lactose or milk sugar. 

CtfHjjOn.HjQ *-»• 4C 3 H 6 3 . 

When 0.9 per cent, is formed the action is stopped, the lactic 
acid acting as a preservative. In sour milk as used for cooking 
purposes, the acidity rarely exceeds 0.4-0.5 per cent. As a rule 
too large an amount of saleratus was used thus giving an excess 
of alkali. This affected the taste and interfered with protein 
digestion. 2. The saleratus of to-day is not KHCO s , but a 
cheaper and stronger compound NaHC0 3 , approximately four 
parts of which according to the molecular weight, will do the 
work of five parts of the potassium compound. Old recipes 
should therefore be reduced to j/5 of the amount suggested. In 
old cook books may be found the recipe for cream of tartar soda 
biscuit conforming very closely to proportions in use at the 
present time. 

Baking Powders. — The introduction of baking powders some 
fifty to sixty years ago was a great advantage although the early 
powders were very crude. The first one prepared had for its 
ingredients Na 2 C0 3 and H 2 S0 4 , but this proved too troublesome 
to be practical. Liebig suggested the use of the NaHC0 3 and 
HC1 which would give a residue of NaCl, a perfectly harmless 
product. The bicarbonate was found to be so satisfactory that 
its use has continued to the present time, but experimentation 
soon proved that the acid could not be used. Commercial HC1 
almost invariably contains traces of arsenic, minute quantities of 
which could be found in the dough. Another acid ingredient 
was sought, one which would be effective, comparatively cheap, 



FOOD INDUSTRIES 115 

with good keeping qualities and which would give a harmless 
residue. In the early sixties Professor Horsford patented a 
compound consisting of acid phosphate of lime and bicarbonate 
of soda with starch as a filler. Later, taking advantage of the 
old housewife's recipe of cream of tartar and soda, a similar 
product was put on the market. At a still later period powders 
containing alums and mixtures of alums and phosphate appeared 
but for many years the manufacture and sale of tartrate powders 
exceeded all others. 

Important forms of powders on the market are known as 
tartrate, calcium phosphate, sodium phosphate and alum phos- 
phosphate. Tartrate powders consist of mixtures of cream of 
tartar, bicarbonate of soda in proportion of two to "one by weight 
and dry starch about one-fifth by weight. In a few instances the 
cream of tartar is partially replaced by tartaric acid. Calcium 
phosphate powders consist of soluble acid calcium phosphate, bi- 
carbonate of soda and starch as filler. Sodium phosphate powders 
contain monosodium phosphate, bicarbonate of soda and starch. 
Alum phosphate powders consist of sodium aluminium sulphate, 
popularly known as S. A. S., acid calcium phosphate, bicarbonate 
of soda and starch filler. 

Until the passing of the law prohibiting their use, there were 
many straight alum powders on the market. They contained 
starch as filler, bicarbonate of soda and potassium, sodium or 
ammonium aluminium sulphate. They were very effective but 
were found to be so objectionable on account of the amount of 
alum present that their sale has been practically abolished. 

There has been much controversy as to the relative merits of 
these powders, the chief point of discussion being the residue, 
"What is it?" "What amount is present?" "Is it harmful?" Of 
the phosphate powders, the sodium compound is undoubtedly the 
least harmful and the most efficient. A glance at the following 
reactions and table will give some idea of the relative value. 



Il6 FOOD INDUSTRIES 

TARTRATE POWDER. 

188 84 54 282 44 

KHC 4 H 4 6 + NaHC0 3 + 3H 2 — NaKC 4 H 4 6 ,4H 2 + CO, 

20 per cent, filler. 

1 level T. of powder weighs 3.00 grams and contains 20 per 
cent, of starch. This yields approximately 0.4 gram C0 2 or 
200 c.c. at o° C, which becomes 273 c.c. at ioo° C, the highest 
temperature of the oven. The residue of crystallized Rochelle 
Salts amounts to 2.5 grams. 

CALCIUM PHOSPHAf E POWDER. 

234 168 180 

CaH 4 (P0 4 ) 2 + 2 NaHC0 3 + ioH 2 -* 

136 358 88 

CaHP0 4 + Na 2 HP0 4 ,i2H 2 -f- 2C0 2 

CaHP0 4 is insoluble in water ; it requires free acid for solution. 

1 level T. of powder weighs 4.4 grams and contains 25 per 

cent, of starch. This yields approximately 0.72 gram C0 2 or 

355 c.c. at o° C. which becomes 485 c.c. at ioo° C. the highest 

point of the oven. The residue of phosphates weighs 4.05 grams. 

SODIUM PHOSPHATE POWDER. 

120 84 142 44 

NaH 2 Po 4 + NaHCo 3 -+- uH,0 — ■ Na 2 HP0 4) i2H 2 + C0 2 

2,2 per cent, filler. 

1 level T. of powder weighs 3.75 grams and contains 32 per 
cent, of starch. This yields approximately 0.545 gram C0 2 or 
274 c.c. at o° C. which becomes 374 c.c. at ioo° C. the highest 
point of the oven. The residue of soluble sodium phosphate 
weighs 4.41 grams. 

ALUM PHOSPHATE POWDER. 

475 2 34 336 

(NH 4 ) 2 A1 2 (S0 4 ) 4 + CaH 4 (P0 4 ) 2 + 4 NaHC0 3 + 

144 245 192 

8H 2 — A1 2 (P0 4 ) 2 + CaS0 4 ,2H 2 -f 

132 644 176 

(NH 4 ) 2 S0 4 + 2Na 2 S0 4 ,ioH 2 + ^C0 2 

1 level T. of powder weighs 2.85 grams and contains ZZ J A P er 



FOOD INDUSTRIES 



117 



cent, of starch. ■ This yields approximately 0.32 gram C0 2 or 
160 c.c. at o° C. which becomes 218 c.c. at ioo° C. the highest 
point of the oven. Residue weighs 2.17 grams. 





Weight of 
iT. of 
powder 


Weight of 

1 T. of 

powder 

less the 

filler 


Weight 
of C0 2 


Volume 
of CO., 
at o° C. 


Volume 
of COo at 
the oven 
tempera- 
ture 


Weight 

of the 

residue 


Remarks 


Tartrate 


3 grams 


2.4 grams 


04 gram 


200 c.c. 


237 c.c. 


2.5 grams 

All soluble 

in water. 


Residue con- 
tains water 
of crystal- 
lization. 


Calcium 
phosphate 


4.4 grams 


3.3 grams 


0.72 gram 


355 c.c. 


485 c.c. 


4.05 grams 
27.5 % insol- 

ubl e in 

water. 


Residue con- 
tains water 
of crystal- 
lization. 


Sodium 
phosphate 


3.75 grams 


2.5 grams 


0-545 gram 


274 c.c. 


374 c.c. 


4.41 grams 

All soluble 

in water 


Residue con- 
tains water 
of crystal- 
lization. 


Alum 
phosphate 


2.85 grams 


1.9 grams 


0.32 gram 


160 c.c. 


218 c.c. 


2.17 grams 
36.6 54 insol- 

uble in 

water. 


Residue con- 
tains water 
of crystal- 
lization. 



Relative Efficiency. — Tartrate powders are expensive, but 
they keep well so are effective when old. They yield a residue 
of Rochelle Salts which is soluble in water. Tartrate powders 
may be prepared at home by thoroughly mixing y 2 -pound of 
cream of tartar, %-pound of bicarbonate of soda and }4-pound 
of starch or lactose. Lactose has been found to be very effective 
as a filler. It has great lasting power but is more expensive. 

Calcium phosphate and alum phosphate powders are cheap 
but they do not keep well and leave a residue which is largely 
insoluble in water. They cannot be successfully made in the 
household. 

Until a conclusion was drawn by the Referee Board of the 
Department of Agriculture, alum in foods was considered deteri- 
mental to health. It is the belief now that aluminium compounds 
in such quantities as would be found in bread do not affect in- 



Il8 FOOD INDUSTRIES 

juriously the nutritive value or render them detrimental to 
health. Dr. Taylor calls attention to the fact, however, that the 
regular ingestion of sodium sulphate which acts as a cathartic, 
cannot be recommended. Since alum phosphate powders leave 
such a residue, biscuit prepared from them should not have a 
place in the daily diet*. 

Ammonia Powders. — Bakers have been using ammonium car- 
bonate very effectively as a leavening agent. It has the great ad- 
vantage of leaving no residue, but must be used in very small 
quantities or the product will taste of ammonia. 

(NH 4 ) 2 C0 3 — 2NH3 + CO, + H 2 0. 

Cream of Tartar. — Almost all of the cream of tartar and tar- 
taric acid used in this country are imported, the largest amounts 
coming from Germany and France. They are by-products of 
the wine industry being obtained from a certain kind of sour 
wine. Cream of tartar or potassium bitartrate is a normal con- 
stituent of grapes, occurring in comparatively large amounts. 
When the fruit is crushed and pressed in the preparation of 
wine, most of the tartrate salts being soluble pass out with the 
juice. There is no tendency for them to become insoluble and 
precipitate in crystalline form until the grape juice reaches 5-6 
per cent, of alcoholic strength. This occurs during the fermen- 
tation process. It is customary to float branches of the grape 
vine in the fermenting vats. As the alcohol increases, gradually 
cream of tartar is deposited upon the sides of the vat and on the 
floating branches. The crystals carry down with them the color 
of the wine. They are known commercially as "argols." There 
is also a dark deposit at the bottom of a full barrel of new wine 
after it has stood long enough to settle, called the "lees." From 
argols, cream of tartar is made. "Lees" contains a larger amount 
of calcium tartrate and is used more extensively for the produc- 
tion of tartaric acid. 

Argols is not pure cream of tartar as it carries down in pre- 
cipitating, other constituents of the grape. These impurities 
must be removed. In the process of refining, the crystals of 

* See U. S. Bulletin 103. Alum in Foods. 



FOOD INDUSTRIES 119 

argols are powdered, dissolved in boiling water and filtered to 
remove dirt and other foreign matter. The color can be removed 
with egg albumin or by filtering while hot through bone-black. 
The solution is then run into shallow receivers and as the clear 
liquid cools, cream of tartar separates and is deposited in thick 
masses of crystals. These crystals may be further purified by 
again dissolving in hot water and recrystallizing. When all the 
impurities are removed, the crystals are powdered in a mill and 
are then ready for the market. 

Tartaric Acid. — Tartaric acid may be prepared from the lees 
by the action of sulphuric acid. The calcium is removed in the 
form of a sulphate. 

CaC 4 H 4 6 + H 2 S0 4 — H 2 C 4 H 4 6 + CaS0 4 . 
Tartaric acid is used largely in pharmacy and in the textile in- 
dustry, either as the acid or as tartar emetic in certain dyeing 
processes and in calico printing. 

Acid Phosphate of Lime. — The soluble acid phosphate as used 
in the baking powder industry does not occur in nature, but must 
be manufactured. Calcium phosphate Ca 3 (P0 4 ) 2 , occurs in the 
mineral known as apatite or rock phosphate. It is a form that 
is insoluble in water, but can be readily made soluble by treatment 
with an acid. 

Ca 3 (P0 4 ) 2 + 2H 2 S0 4 «— CaH 4 (POA + 2CaS0 4 . 

The mixture of calcium phosphate and sulphate is separated by 
nitration, soluble phosphate being found in the liquid portion 
from which it can be crystallized. 

Bicarbonate of Soda. — The preparation of soda constitutes 
to-day one of our largest and most important industries. Alkali 
compounds have been used for cleaning purposes by the house- 
wife, for many centuries, but this represents only about one per 
cent, of the soda manufactured. It is also needed in many in- 
dustries such as soap-making, glass manufacture and in the 
bleaching of cotton and linen goods. 

The original alkali used was potassium carbonate obtained 
from potassium salts which are widely spread throughout plant 



120 FOOD INDUSTRIES 

life. The housewife formerly obtained her supply from the ashes 
of her wood fire. Boiling water was poured over the dead embers 
of the fire, and the solution was boiled down giving a lye which 
was used for the preparation of soft soap. By further evapora- 
tion the lye yielded flat, pearly crystals of carbonate of potash 
commonly known as pearl ash. Being hygroscopic, on exposing 
to air pearl ash absorbs moisture and in this condition is very 
attractive to carbon dioxide, eventually resulting in bicarbonate 
of potassium or saleratus. This operation was usually conducted 
in the cooler portion of the chimney flue. For many years the 
manufacturer copied the housewife's process on a larger scale. 
Later when mineral deposits of potash compounds were discov- 
ered it became possible to prepare potassium salts from that 
source increasing the yield and lowering the cost of production. 
The largest deposits occur on the western coast of South America 
and in the region of North Germany which has Stassfurt as the 
center. 

It was not until the 18th century that another alkali was found 
to take its place. This was discovered by the Spaniards who 
prepared it by burning to ash a sea-weed found along their coast. 
It contained a sodium compound which yielded a carbonate on 
heating. The soda compound, being stronger and cheaper than 
potash, was readily received by the manufacturers and used by 
them, until the early days of the 19th century. Warfare at that 
time interfered with commerce and Spain being hostile, the 
French manufacturers were cut off from their source of supply. 
Napoleon was determined to get some means of replacing this 
alkali and as France was poor in mineral deposits, he offered a 
reward for the discovery of a practical process for making sod- 
ium carbonate. Everything used in the manufacture, however, 
must be obtained in France. Many chemists worked at this prob- 
lem and a process was finally discovered by Le Blanc which is 
used in many places at the present time. 

Le Blanc Method. — Le Blanc used in the preparation of soda, 
dry salt which he obtained from the sea, by the process of evap- 
oration. He then mixed together salt and concentrated sulphuric 



FOOD INDUSTRIES 121 

acid, which were heated to a red heat causing the escape of hydro- 

2NaCl + H 2 S0 4 — Na a S0 4 + 2HCI 
chloric acid and leaving a residue of impure sodium sulphate 
known as "the salt cake." The salt cake was broken up and 
mixed with powdered coal and limestone and was then treated 
in a reverberatory furnace, resulting in an impure product known 
as "Black Ash." 

Na 2 S0 4 + 2C — Na 2 S + 2C0 2 , 
Na 2 S + CaC0 3 — Na 2 C0 3 + CaS. 
Na^COs can be obtained from this residue by solution in water 
which eventually yields on evaporation the commercial form 
known as soda ash. Sal soda Na^COg, ioH 2 is obtained by 
crystallizing the solution of soda ash. 

Baking soda, bicarbonate of soda, is sometimes made by mix- 
ing the calculated quantities of soda ash and sal soda in a moist 
state forming the product into blocks and subjecting them to the 
action of carbon dioxide. 

9Na 2 C0 3 + Na 2 C0 3 , ioH 2 + ioC0 2 — - 20 NaHC0 3 . 

Hydrochloric acid was practically unknown commercially until 
the invention of the Le Blanc process of soda manufacture. At 
first it was allowed to escape into the air and being washed 
down by rain it found its way into neighboring streams. This 
soon caused the destruction, of animal and plant life and was 
also a waste of a valuable by-product. Later it was discovered 
that HC1 could be run into water and sold. This opened up a 
new industry and did much toward making the Le Blanc method 
a commercial success. 

When more HC1 was produced than was needed, it was soon 
found that from it chloride of lime could be prepared, and a 
valuable disinfectant and bleaching agent was placed upon the 
market. 

Value of the he Blanc Process. — The raw materials salt, coal, 
limestone and sulphuric acid are common and inexpensive. The 
furnace and plant can be put up at a fairly low price. The by- 
products are important and have done much toward keeping this 
process in existence. 

Solvay Process. — The So.lvay method of preparing sodium 



122 FOOD INDUSTRIES 

carbonate was invented in i860 by a Belgian named Solvay, and 
has practically superseded the Le Blanc process. Scattered 
throughout the world are large deposits of salt, sometimes in the 
dry state as in the salt mines of Germany and England, at other 
times in the form of brine. Brine wells occur more extensively 
and as the Le Blanc method required dry salt, it was found very 
troublesome to evaporate the water. The Solvay process can 
make use of the brine. This has been a great benefit to America 
for brine wells are abundant in Michigan, Louisiana and New 
York State. Syracuse is an important center in the American 
soda industry. Brine is also much easier to handle. It is 
pumped to the surface, saturated with ammonia, and then with 
carbon dioxide. 

NaCl + H 2 + NH 3 + C0 2 — NaHC0 3 + NH,C1. 

NaHC0 3 is separated by filtration. 

If sodium carbonate is wanted the bicarbonate is heated. 
2 NaHC0 3 — Na 2 C0 3 + H 2 + C0 2 . 

The ammonium chloride obtained in this process can be de- 
composed by heating with quicklime, and the ammonia given off 
is again used for the treatment of another batch of brine. This 
process is cheaper and simpler than the Le Blanc and furnishes 
a purer product. 

Niagara Process. — By the use of electricity, a method of pre- 
paring soda has been discovered, which is a serious rival to both 
the Le Blanc and Solvay processes. Brine is run into partitioned 
tanks containing electrodes. When the current is turned on ion- 
ization of the salt occurs. 

NaCl + H 2 — NaOH + HC1. 
NaOH passes to the negative pole in one partition as it carries 
a positive change and HC1 goes to the positive pole in the other 
partition. Caustic soda can readily be utilized in the preparation 
of the carbonate and the bicarbonate. 

2 NaOH + C0 2 «— Na 2 C0 3 + H 2 0, 
Na 2 C0 3 + H 2 Q + C0 2 — * 2 NaHCQ,. 
In this industry HC1 can again be used as a by-product for the 
preparation of chloride of lime or can be utilized in the acid 
form. 



CHAPTER IX. 



STARCH AND ALLIED INDUSTRIES. 

Starch is one of the most widely diffused substances in the 
vegetable kingdom. With the exception of the fungi, it has been 
found in varying amounts in every plant that scientists have so 
far examined. It occurs in relatively large amounts in different 
parts of the plant as in the seed (cereals), the root (cassava), 
the tuber (potato), the fruit (banana), the stem (celery, rhu- 
barb, sago), and in the leaves (spinach). 

Composition and Formation. — See Chapter I, Food Principles. 

Physical Characteristics. — -To the naked eye, starch has the 
appearance of a glistening white powder. It is neutral to litmus, 
has no odor or taste, does not crystallize and has a harsh feeling 
when rubbed between the fingers. When seen through a micro- 
scope, it consists of granules of various forms, round, oval, etc., 
differing greatly in size, according to the source. This has served 
as a valuable means of identifying starch. Although the size 
and shape may differ, all starch granules have a characteristic 
appearance. They are arranged in layers around a central nu- 
cleus. The outside consists of a substance closely resembling 
cellulose and within the granule or package is found the true 
starch. 

Physical and Chemical Properties. — Insoluble in cold water. 

With iodine, starch gives a characteristic blue color. 

Starch absorbs moisture from the atmosphere until it contains 
approximately 18 per cent. In very damp weather, it has been 
found to absorb a much larger quantity. 

When heated dry to 200 C. or more it is converted into dex- 
trin. 

When heated in the presence of water, the contents of the 
granules swell enormously owing to a large absorption of water, 
and cause the rupture of the outer wall. The starch freed from 
the package forms a viscous liquid known as starch paste. 

Uses. — While its place in the diet would alone make starch an 
important article of commerce, the manufacturer finds many 



124 FOOD INDUSTRIES 

another market for his product. It is used: in laundries; for 
food, such as puddings, sauces and jellies; for candies, such as 
gum drops arid lozenges ; in baking powders ; in the textile in- 
dustry for stiffening and finishing fabrics ; in wall paper manu- 
facture as a filler, finisher and size ; for cosmetics, asbestos, soaps 
and adhesives; in brewing beer, ales and in the manufacture of 
alcohol; for the manufacture of dextrin and glucose. 

Source of Supply. — While starch is so widely distributed in the 
vegetable kingdom, there are comparatively few plants that can 
be utilized as a source of supply for the manufacture. In look- 
ing for his raw material, the starch producer must consider sev- 
eral important points: ist, the ease with which the plant can be 
grown in his locality; 2nd, the amount of starch yielded by the 
plant; 3rd, the ease of extraction; 4th, the presence of other 
constituents, such as protein and oil, which make the process 
difficult. 

With these points in mind, the European manufacturer 
chooses the potato, wheat and rice. The American uses corn 
and to a limited extent the potato and wheat. In the East and 
West Indies the cassava furnishes the chief source of starch. 
The arrowroot is utilized in the West Indies and parts of South 
America, and the sago in the East Indies. 

POTATO STARCH. 

The potato is a valuable source of starch on account of the 
great ease of extraction. The starch content is comparatively 
low as compared with corn and wheat, but protein, mineral mat- 
ter and oil are present in such small amounts that they do not 
interfere with the manufacturing processes. As a rule only about 
20 per cent, of starch is found in the potato, although in certain 
parts of Germany the starch content has reached from 25-29 
per cent. 

Potatoes can be grown very easily in temperate climates, nota- 
bly Germany, England, Scotland and Ireland. In the United 
States, Maine produces a high quality potato ; Wisconsin and 
Colorado also grow potatoes for the starch industry. The follow- 



FOOD INDUSTRIES 1 25 

ing demonstration may be used to illustrate the simplicity of the 
method used : 

Extraction of Starch. — Clean and remove the skin from a small 
potato. Rub it on an ordinary grater, collect the gratings in a 
beaker of cold water, strain and allow the cloudy liquid to stand 
until the starch settles. Pour off the liquid. The starch can be 
purified by the addition of water, thoroughly mixing and allow- 
ing the starch to again settle. Remove the water by filtration 
and dry the starch with low heat. 

Although the manufacturer uses more or less complicated 
machinery to carry out these operations, the commercial pro- 
cesses are practically the same. 

Processes in Manufacture. — Cleaning. — The washing of po- 
tatoes must be thorough or the quality of the starch will surfer. 
The adhering dirt and sand are carefully removed by washing 
in revolving wooden drums, so constructed that the water carry- 
ing dirt and other impurities can escape through narrow open- 
ings. Inside the drums, devices, such as bristle or wire brushes, 
or revolving arms which rub the potatoes together, are some- 
times used to assist in the cleansing. 

Rasping.— The potatoes are reduced to a pulp in machines 
called raspers. These are usually revolving cylinders containing 
saw blades or knife edges to assist in the pulping process. Water 
is added at the time of rasping and the starch pulp is fed to a 
sifting machine. 

Sifting. — Shaking tables covered with gauze separate the starch 
from the potato pulp. The pulp can be pressed, dried, and 
sold as a low grade cattle food. The starch suspended in water 
passes through the sieves to settling tanks. When it has settled in 
a firm mass, it can be broken up and sent at once to a drying 
kiln or can be further refined. 

All root starches follow the same principle in the extraction 
of the starch. 

TAPIOCA. 

Tapioca is an important food product prepared from the 
starch of the cassava, a plant largely grown in Brazil and other 



126 



FOOD INDUSTRIES 



tropical countries. The extraction of the starch is carried out 
by the processes of grinding and washing with water, similar to 
those described under potato starch. The product is sometimes 
known as Brazilian arrowroot. In the manufacture of tapioca, 
the starch while still damp is placed in shallow pans and sub- 
jected to low heat. As the moisture is driven off, the tempera- 
ture is gradually raised until the starch granules burst and ad- 
here together, forming the mass into small irregularly shaped 
translucent kernels. A similar product may be obtained by mak- 
ing a starch paste, subjecting it to heat, and forcing it through 







Fig. 28. — Sheds and Board Used for Drying the Tapioca. (Courtesy of The Spiee 
Mill Publishing Co.) 



metal screens from which it is dropped and cooled. Tapioca is 
placed on the market in various forms according to the amount 
of heat used and differences in mechanical operations. 

Starch derived from other sources may be subjected to the 
same treatment and an equally nutritious product be obtained. 
As genuine tapioca, however, is always prepared from cassava 
starch, other imitative forms must be classed as substitution 
products. 



FOOD INDUSTRIES I27 

Outline of the Corn Products Industry. — 
Cleaned. 

Kernel softened by steeping. 
Crushed. 
Separated by gravity. 

( 1 ) Germ flows off from the top with the raw starch 

liquor, screened from the latter, dried, ground, 
pressed. 

(2) Hulls flow off from the bottom with the raw starch 

liquor, screened from the latter, then ground in 
burr mills and become part of gluten feed. 

(3) Endosperm (raw starch liquor) separated by grav- 

( Starch 
ity on tables into -j 

(_ Gluten, which with corn sol- 
ubles obtained from steep- 
ing water, becomes part 
of the gluten feed. 
Starch is purified and sold as 

Starch — laundry lump, crystal, pearl powder, etc. 
1. By process of roasting. 



Dextrin 



2. By use of a dilute acid. 

f Boiled with dilute 



Glucose by process of hydrolysis < 



acid 0.06 % 
Neutralized. 
Filtered. 
Decolorized 
Concentrated. 



CORN PRODUCTS INDUSTRY. 

The abundance of the growth of corn in the United States 
and the many by-products obtained, make it an important source 
of starch, although the composition of the kernel involves elabo- 
rate methods for the extraction. 

The kernel of corn consists of an outer coating called the hull, 
the germ of which contains a comparatively large amount of oil, 
and the endosperm where are found starch and protein. 



128 



FOOD INDUSTRIES 



When received at the factory, the corn contains some impuri- 
ties and the kernel is in a dry, hard condition. 

Processes in Manufacture. — Cleaning. — Corn like other cereals 
contains a certain amount of foreign matter, such as bits of corn 
cob, pieces of wood, lint, dust and dirt. These are removed by 
screening, while magnets are used for drawing out bits of iron, 
nails and the like. 




Fig. 29. — Steeped Corn Running to Crushers. (Courtesy of Corn Products Refining Co.) 

Steeping.— In order to separate the kernel into its com- 
ponent parts, the hard, dry grain must first be softened. This is 
accomplished by steeping in water for approximately 40 hours 
at a temperature of no° F. Steam is injected to maintain the 
circulation and to keep the temperature at the desired degree. 
A very small amount of acid, 0.005 P er cent. H 2 SO s , is added to 
prevent fermentation. This is afterward removed by thorough 
washing. When the grain has absorbed sufficient moisture to 
cause a loosening and softening of the various parts, the water 



FOOD INDUSTRIES 



129 



is drawn off, leaving the kernel of corn in a moist, soft condition. 
The steepwater is evaporated and the solubles of the corn are 
incorporated with the gluten feed. The steeped corn is run to 
the crushers (Fig. 29). 

Crushing. — The softened grain is passed through a mill 
called the crusher (Fig. 30) which consists of two large disks set 
face to face having projecting teeth and rotating in opposite di- 
rections. The crusher is supposed to grind only to a coarse meal, 
thus leaving the germ and hull intact. 




Fig. 30. — Crushers. (Courtesy of Corn Products Refining Co.) 

Separation. — The resulting mass is fed to a long, narrow 
tank about 25 feet long, 4 feet wide and 8 feet deep, filled with 
starch liquor of about 8° Baume, where taking advantage of the 
difference in the specific gravity, a separation of the various 
parts is effected. The germ being the lightest rises to the top and 
floats over the weir at the end of the tank; the hulls sink to the 
bottom and flow off with the starch liquor (Fig. 31). The germs 
are passed over screens or shakers. They are then washed to 




i3° 



FOOD INDUSTRIES 




Fig. 31. — Separators. (Courtesy of Corn Products Refining Co.) 




Fig. 32. — Hydraulic Presses for Oil. (Courtesy of Corn Products Refining Co.) 



FOOD INDUSTRIES 131 

free them from adhering starch, dried, ground fine, heated, 
wrapped in cloth and pressed (Fig. 32). The pressure causes 
the oil to flow out, leaving the oil cake which is sold for cattle 
food. The oil is cleared of foots by settling and passing through 
a filter process. It may be used for the manufacture of soap, 
soap powders, oil cloth, leather, paints and varnishes. By further 
refining with a treatment which removes the free fatty acids and 
other impurities, corn oil can be used for edible purposes as a 
salad oil, for frying and cooking and as a shortening for bread 
and cake. In this form, it is also utilized for pharmaceutical 
purposes. By a vulcanizing process, corn oil yields a substance 
called "paragol," which can be used as a rubber substitute in the 
preparation of such articles as shoes, rubber specialties and auto- 
mobile tires. 

The Hulls and the Endosperm. — The hulls flow off from 
the bottom of the separator together with the starch liquor (en- 
dosperm) just as did the germs from. the top of the separator. 
They then pass over screens, the starch liquor uniting with the 
starch liquor of the germs. The hulls being coarse are ground 
in burr mills, passed over screens, the starch liquor unites with 
the starch liquor of the germs and of the hulls, and the ground 
hull becomes part of the gluten feed, being mixed with the glu- 
ten and corn solubles. 

The starch liquor (endosperm) contains the starch and pro- 
tein matter, which is spoken of as gluten by the manufacturer. 
These must next be separated. This is effected by removing the 
starch liquor screened from the germs, hulls and ground hulls, 
directly upon tables from 60-120 feet long, 3 feet wide with an= 
incline of about 4 inches. As there is a difference in specific 
gravity, the starch settles while the liquid containing the protein 
flows over the end of the run and is caught in a tank below. The 
crude corn protein is mixed with the hulls, filter pressed, mixed 
with the corn solubles, dried, ground and constitutes gluten feed. 
The starch which settles to the bottom of the run is removed 
by being shoveled while in a solid, moist condition. The purifi- 
cation can be effected by the addition of water and again pass- 
ing over the runs on which the starch settles. This process can 



132 



FOOD INDUSTRIES 



be repeated until all foreign matter, such as traces of fat and 
protein are removed. Pearl starch, that to be used for baking 
powder and for certain classes of food starch, is prepared by 
breaking up the starch from the table and placing it on trays 
which are put up into iron wagons, run into kilns, and dried. The 
lump starch and crystal forms are prepared by mixing the starch 
from the tables with water, then running it into boxes with per- 
forated bottom lined with cloth (Fig. 33). The boxes are al- 




Fig. 33- — Dripping Boxes. (Courtesy of Corn Products Refining Co.) 

lowed to stand until the water runs off, then turned over and the 
thick slab of starch is broken up into cubes (Fig. 34). These 
are either wrapped in paper or put in trays and placed in drying 
ovens, where after ten or more days they are drawn out. 

Dextrins are produced in the same factory usually by the 
simple process of roasting. The different varieties depend upon 
the time and heat applied. 

Uses of Dextrins. — For the manufacture of gums, glues, muci- 
lage and other adhesives ; for cloth, carpets and twine ; for leather 



FOOD INDUSTRIES 



133 



dressings, paper and ink ; for food sauces ; in the textile industry, 
in sizes for strengthening the fiber and finishing the fabric. Also 
for thickening colors for calico and other printing. 

CORN SYRUP OR GLUCOSE. 

On account of its source commercial glucose is known in the 
United States as corn syrup. The term glucose is derived from 
the Greek word "Glykos" meaning sweet. It is a carbohydrate 




Fig. 34. — Emptying Starch from Drip Boxes. Breaking into Cubes. 
(Courtesy of Corn Products Refining Co.) 

of the monosaccharid group, C 6 H 12 6 , and is found in nature in 
the juice of many plants, such as grapes, cherries and sweet corn. 
Although it exists at times in relatively large amounts, the com- 
mercial source of glucose is always starch on account of the 
cheapness of that material, and the comparatively simple process 
of manufacture. In Europe glucose was first prepared from the 
potato starch during the early part of the 19th century, and has 



134 FOOD INDUSTRIES 

long been looked upon as a nutritious food. It was not until 
after the Civil War, however, that American manufacturers 
started experimenting with corn starch as a source of supply 
for glucose. As grape sugar and corn syrup, it was soon placed 
upon the market. The products from corn compared very fav- 
orably with those made abroad from potato starch and so rapidly 
has the manufacture grown, that it is now one of our most im- 
portant industries. 

Glucose is sold in the liquid form, either white or colored, 
with or without flavoring, and as a solid in the powdered and 
crystalline form, all under various trade names. The commercial 
forms containing 50 per cent, or less of actual glucose are known 
as glucose. Corn sugar includes the solid forms of glucose con- 
taining more than 50 per cent. 

Uses for Liquid Glucose. — For confectionery, syrups, jams, 
jellies, pie filling, puddings, preserves and mince meat; in the 
brewing of beer; in chewing tobacco; in silvering glasses for 
mirrors ; in liquid soaps, hair tonics, blacking and shoe polishes ; 
in food sauces and in the canning of meats ; for pastes and sizes ; 
in the tanning of leather and in rice polishing. 

Uses for Corn Sugar. — In the manufacture of caramel (sugar 
coloring) ; in brewing of beers, porters, etc.; for vinegar; in the 
manufacture of lactic acid; in bread making. 

Processes of Manufacture. — Whether in Europe or America, 
whether from potato or corn starch, the manufacturer must use 
the process of hydrolysis to obtain glucose. This is accom- 
plished by heating starch in a closed digestor, with a minute 
quantity of muriatic acid. The amount of acid used represents 
proportionately about a fifth of the same acid contained in the 
gastric juice. 

The heating is continued until the starch reaction with iodine 
has disappeared. At the present time, a pressure of 35 pounds 
is maintained and the operation at that pressure is finished in 
about five to ten minutes. 

On the continent and in England H 2 S0 4 is the agent used for 
hydrolysis. This is afterwards neutralized with marble dust 



FOOD INDUSTRIES 135 

which with the acid forms an insoluble precipitate. During the 
process of refining this precipitate is removed. 

H 2 S0 4 -f- CaCO s — CaSO, -f H 2 -| C0 2 . 

The American manufacturer prefers the use of HC1 although 
it is more expensive. With soda ash as a neutralizing agent, 
common salt is obtained as a residue, and being perfectly harm- 
less, the manufacturer is saved the trouble of removing it. 
American glucose therefore always contains sodium chloride. 
2 HC1 + Na 2 CO s -~ 2 NaCl + H 2 + C0 2 . 

After hydrolysis, the glucose solution is filtered to remove 
small amounts of fat and protein occurring in the starch, and is 
then decolorized by passing through bone-black, a similar pro- 
cess to that used in the cane sugar industry. It is then evap- 
orated to various degrees of concentration. 

If hydrolysis has been continued until the dry substance in 
the liquid consists of at least 86 parts of glucose, the product 
after concentration instead of being a syrup, crystallizes and 
hardens into a sugar after it has been run into barrels or pans. 



CHAPTER X. 



THE SUGAR INDUSTRY. 

Source. — The disaccharid C 12 H 22 O ia , known as sucrose or sac- 
charose, is found in a large variety of plants. It is so apt, however, 
to be accompanied by the characteristic flavor of the plant, or other 
carbohydrates, such as starch, glucose or invert sugar, that unless 
it appears in relatively large proportions and can successfully 
be freed from the taste, it does not pay commercially to extract 
it. For the supply of raw sugar the world is largely dependent 
to-day on the sugar cane and the sugar beet. Sugar-producing 
plants of lesser importance in commerce are the maple tree, the 
date palm, the sorghum and the maize. 

History of the Sugar Cane.— Cane is the primitive source of 
sugar. Prior to its discovery, many centuries before the Christ- 
ian era, mankind was largely dependent upon honey as a sweet- 
ening agent, and the European nations knew little of its use until 
the 13th and 14th centuries. The original home of the cane was 
undoubtedly in the east, for mention of it is made in many of 
the sacred books of the Hindoos and Chinese. Its cultivation 
was gradually carried westward by the Persians and Arabs, and 
at the time of the crusades, sugar factories were found in opera- 
tion in Syria and Palestine. Carried still further westward by 
the Saracens and Moors the sugar cane was finally introduced 
into Sicily and Spain. The discovery of America shortly after 
this period led the Spaniards to carry the plant to the New 
World, where it was found that it could be successfully grown 
on the mainland and on adjacent islands. This opened a new 
field for the growth of the cane and laid the foundation of a 
great industry. 

History of the Sugar Beet. — The history of the sugar beet in- 
dustry dates only as far back as the early days of the 19th cen- 
tury. A half century before its introduction, the German chemist 
Margraff had called the attention of the Berlin Academy of 
Science to the fact, that sugar could be extracted from the beet. 
This discovery, however, lay dormant until an important histori- 



FOOD INDUSTRIES 137 

cal event cut off the European nations from their supply of cane 
sugar. South-western Europe, at that time, was involved in 
warfare and a great continental blockade was established. The 
nations of Europe deprived of cane sugar searched for another 
supply to take its place. Sugar from the maple and glucose from 
the juice of grapes were used but could not supply the demand. 
A former pupil of Margraff, Achard, finally turned the attention 
of scientists to the beet, and a long series of investigations fol- 
lowed which had for its final outcome the birth of the beet sugar 
industry. It was first established in France by a decree issued by 
Napoleon, January 15th, 181 1, and was greatly fostered by him 
until the disastrous Russian campaign. Although the fall of that 
dynasty interrupted, it did not destroy the industry, and in the 
course of twenty years it had become of great commercial im- 
portance. Undoubtedly the great progress in this industry was 
largely due to the invention of the polariscope which greatly as- 
sisted in a rapid determination of the amount of sugar present in 
the beet. 

About this period German scientists became interested, and 
through their experimentation, marked progress was made in the 
cultivation of the beet and in the methods of manufacture, which 
in time placed Germany at the head of the sugar producing coun- 
tries of the world. While the beet sugar industry has reached 
its highest development in Germany it is rapidly becoming an 
important source of sugar in the United States. 

Comparison of Cane and Beet Sugar. — Since the time that beet 
sugar began to assume commercial importance, there has been 
much discussion in regard to the relative merits of these sugars 
for use in the household. Scientists claim that chemically they 
are the same, both having the formula C 12l H 22 11 , yet it has often 
been said that beet sugar is not as sweet as cane sugar, and that 
it cannot be used successfully for canning, jelly-making and pre- 
serving. Experiments along this line were carried on at the Cali- 
fornia Experiment Station by Prof. G. W. Shaw. The con- 
clusion drawn from his experimental data was that sugar derived 
from these two sources give equally satisfactory results both in 
the household and for commercial purposes. Any differences 



138 FOOD INDUSTRIES 

occurring seemed due rather to processes of manufacture, such as 
degree of fineness in granulation, rather than to the composition 
of the sugars. 

Properties of Sugar. — From the manufacturer's standpoint, 
there are three important properties to be considered in preparing 
the raw material for the market; 1st, solubility in water; 2nd, 
crystallization ; 3rd, production of invert sugar. 

THE CANE SUGAR INDUSTRY. 

The manufacture of cane sugar as a rule is divided into two 
distinct industries: 1st, the plantation where the plant is grown, 
the juice extracted and made into raw sugar, the form in which 
it is exported ; 2nd, the refinery where the raw sugar is received, 
impurities removed and the sugar recrystallized, in which form 
it is placed upon the market. 

At the Plantation. — Growth. — The sugar cane belongs to the 
family of grasses. It can be grown in a variety of climates, but 
thrives best where it is moist and warm with intervals of hot, dry 
weather. Such conditions are found near the coast in tropical 
and sub-tropical countries. Cuba, Hawaii, Porto Rico, the Philip- 
pine Islands, raise the sugar cane extensively. In the United 
States this industry is confined to the Gulf States especially 
Texas and Louisiana. 

Outline of the Production of Raw Sugar. — 
Cane cut in the green stage. 

Cane crushed \ °, . : 

I crude juice. 

~ , . . j ( woody fiber. 

Crude mice screened < • . J 

■> I juice. 

Juice treated with milk of lime; residue removed. 
Juice concentrated, 
a. Boiled down in open kettles. 

Drained in hogsheads or casks \ 

° I muscovado 



b. Boiled down in vacuum. 
Separated in centrifuge 



molasses, 
raw sugar. 



FOOD INDUSTRIES 



139 



Cutting. — When the crop is ready, the sugar cane is harvested 
by cutting the stalks as close to the ground as possible. Consid- 
erable care must be given that the plant is cut at the right time, 
for should it reach maturity, much sugar would be lost to the 
manufacturer. The sugar cane contains a substance known as 
pectose which in time changes to pectic acid. The presence of 
this acid rapidly converts the sugar into invert sugar which is not 
crystallizable. The sugar planter knowing well the damage this 
acid will do to his product cuts the cane while it is still green. 




Fig- 35- — Cane Mill, Philippines. 
(Courtesy of the School of Mines Quarterly, Columbia University.) 

At the "green stage," the plant contains the maximum amount 
of sugar and the minimum of undesirable substances. After 
stripping the leaves from the stalk and removing the green upper 
portion, the cane is taken to the mill for the extraction of the 
juice. 

Extraction of the Juice. — The most common method used with 
the cane is crushing by means of heavy mills. Cane-mills 
of to-day are of various types ranging from the crude 
ox-driven mill of primitive countries (Fig. 35) to a high power 
steam-driven roller mill where the most modern machinery can 
be found. As the cane is received at the mill it is delivered by 



I/J-O 



FOOD INDUSTRIES 



carriers to a high crusher (Fig. 36), which reduces the stalks to a 
pulpy fiber and extract much of the juice. This mass then passes 
to a mill composed of three rollers of the same size, set in such 
a way that the first and second are not so close together as the 
second and third. The rollers draw the cane within their grip, 
subjecting it on its passage to great pressure, and causing the 
rupture of the cells and the escape of more of the juice. A second 
and third mill are sometimes used, more and more of the juice 
being extracted by each roll. It is customary to spray the pulp 




Fig. 36. — Cane Crusher, Hawaii. 
(Courtesy of the School of Mines Quarterly, Columbia University.) 

as it passes between the rolls to secure a greater degree of ex- 
traction. From the roller-mill two products are obtained, the 
exhausted cane which is called begasse, and the extracted juice 
which must be purified before it can be converted into raw sugar. 
Even with modern machinery, the extraction of juice by this 
method is by no means perfect, — only from 75 to 80 per cent, of 
the weight in cane juice is obtained. As the sugar cane con- 
tains approximately 88 per cent, a considerable portion of the 
sugar is lost in the begasse. Much experimenting has been done 
to remove the juice from the cane by a method which will involve 
less loss. The diffusion method used so largely in the beet sugar 



FOOD INDUSTRIES 



141 



industry has been tried, but at present is being used in but few 
of the large plantations in the United States. 

Purification of the Raw Juice. — The second important step is 
the purification of the raw juice by straining, to remove bits of 
cane, and the addition of a clarifying agent. Milk of lime is the 
agent most commonly used and the mass is heated to boiling. 
This prevents fermentation, neutralizes the free organic acids 
of the juice and assists in the coagulation of the dissolved matter. 
A thick scum of impurities rises to the top of the kettle. This 




Fig- 37- — Open Pan Kvaporators, Philippines. 
(Courtesy of the School of Mines Quarterly, Columbia University.) 

consists of lime salts and albuminous matter and is known as 
"the blanket scum." The impurities are removed by skimming 
and by sedimentation and passage through a filter press. 

Evaporation. — The concentration of the juice may be carried 
out in two ways: 1st the old-fashioned method of boiling down 
in an open kettle; 2nd by the use of the vacuum pan. Large 
open pans or kettles usually made of copper and heated over 
direct fire are found now, only in primitive countries or on iso- 
lated plantations (Fig. 37). Their use has been found to involve 
a great loss of sugar, although the product obtained had an 
agreeable aromatic taste much preferable to the refined sugar of 



142 



FOOD INDUSTRIES 



to-day. It was customary to boil down the sugar juice until the 
mass began to crystallize. This necessitated a rise in temperature 
from 212° to 240°-25o° F. and resulted in the formation of 
caramel and invert sugar which must be looked upon as waste 
from the standpoint of the manufacturer. After crystallization 
had reached the desired point, the mass was freed from the syrup 
by simply being run while hot into hogsheads having fine perfor- 
ated bottoms, through which the molasses gradually drained out. 
The light brown sugar obtained as a result of this process was 
known as "muscovado" sugar. The molasses was very dark in 




Fig. 38. — Vacuum Pans, Hawaii. 
(Courtesy of the School of Mines Qucirterty, Columbia University.) 



color but of excellent quality and without further treatment could 
be used as a table syrup. 

In all modern sugar mills, evaporation is carried on in vacuum 
pans where concentration can be brought about with a lower 
temperature, i6o°-i8o° F., thus avoiding the losses always oc- 
curring in the open kettle method. The vacuum pan invented 
in England in 1813 is a large closed vessel usually made of cop- 
per containing steam-coils for heating, the vacuum being main- 
tained by a pump (Fig. 38). Suitable openings are made in the 
side for the entrance and exit of the juice, a window is inserted 
where the operation can be watched, and an opening from which 



FOOD INDUSTRIES 



143 



samples can be taken and tested. When the vacuum pan was 
first introduced into this industry only one was used. It has 
been found of great economic value, however, to use the vacuum 
evaporators in series of two, three or more, known as the mul- 
tiple effect vacuum (Fig. 39). When arranged in series, a low 
vacuum is maintained in the first vessel, a little higher in the 
second and still higher in the third and so on. The boiling point 
for each succeeding vessel is thus reduced. When the system is 




Fig- 39- — Multiple-effect Evaporating Apparatus 

in operation, the steam arising from the juice in the first vessel 
passes to the coils of the second vessel and serves as a heating 
agent. The steam from the juice of the second vessel in turn 
serves as a heating medium for the third vessel. After the 
clarified juice has been evaporated to a syrup, it is run into a 
single vacuum pan known as "the strike pan" when a high degree 
of vacuum is maintained (Fig. 40). There it is concentrated 
until the sugar begins to grain. Crystallization is allowed to 
continue until the pan is full of crystals the desired size. The 
mixture of crystals and syrup is known as "massecuite." The 



144 



FOOD INDUSTRIES 



vacuum is then broken, air is admitted and the bottom of the 
pan is opened so the contents can be transferred to a mixing ap- 
paratus where the massecuite is kept in gentle motion. While 
still warm the mixture is passed to a centrifugal machine which 
causes a separation of the crystallized sugar and the molasses. 




Fig. 40. — Vacuum Strike Pan. 



Centrifugal. — The centrifugal or centrifuge is a hollow iron 
drum containing a perforated basket (Fig. 41). It can be rapidly 
rotated during which the sugar mass is thrown against the sides 
of the basket and the molasses passes through the perforations. 



FOOD INDUSTRIES 



145 



The sugar is then bagged and shipped to the country where it is 
to be refined. 

This is known as "the first sugar" and the molasses drained 
from the sugar is called "the first molasses." This molasses may 
be sold for household use or as it contains much sugar it may 
be again worked over. This is accomplished by boiling it down 
in vacuum and again centrifuging. By this means a second 




Fig. 41. — Centrifugal Machines. (Courtesy of Sugar, Chicago, 111.) 

sugar and a second molasses are obtained. The second molasses 
may again be boiled down for a third sugar and molasses. While 
the third molasses still contains about 30 per cent, sugar, it con- 
tains so many impurities that the sugar will not crystallize. 

THE BEET SUGAR INDUSTRY. 

Growth. — Unlike the cane the sugar beet reaches its highest 
development in a north temperate climate, although where the 
soil has exceptionally good qualities, it has been grown success- 
10 



146 



FOOD INDUSTRIES 



fully in sub-tropical regions, but is not apt to contain as much 
sugar. Moisture also plays an important part in the production 




Fig. 42. — The Wild Beet. (Courtesy of Sugar, Chicago, 111.) 

of a normal crop. The sandy soil, temperature, and moisture 
near our western rivers in Colorado, and neighboring States, 
furnish satisfactory farm land for this industry. Beets can also 



FOOD INDUSTRIES 



147 



be grown successfully in irrigated areas and large tracts of waste 
land it is hoped may be utilized in this way. Much experiment- 




Fig. 43.— The Sugar Beet of To-day. (Courtesy of Sugar, Chicago, 111,) 

ing is being done in regard to the cultivation of the beet, and 
great improvement has been made especially in increasing the 
sugar content (Figs. 42 and 43). The average percentage of 



148 



FOOD INDUSTRIES 




FOOD INDUSTRIES 149 

sugar is 13-14 per cent., while on irrigated area it has been in- 
creased to 16-18 per cent. The yield per acre is still low, not 
exceeding eight tons, while in Europe twelve to thirteen tons 
are obtained (Fig. 44). 

Outune; of the; Production of Raw Bfft Sugar. — 
Beets are grown, harvested, topped. 
Washed. 
Sliced. 

Diffused j P ul P- ■ - 

( crude juice. 

Crude juice is screened. 

Defecated. 



-p.. , f albuminous matter, etc. 

I juice. 
Concentratec 

Centrifuged 



Concentrated in vacuum, 
molasses, 
raw sugar. 

Topped. — After harvesting it is necessary to remove the tops 
with a small part of the neck of the beet. The object of remov- 
ing this portion is to prevent the large accumulation of mineral 
matter at the top from entering the factory, as it interferes with 
the crystallization of the sugar. This work in done in Europe 
as a rule by women and children. In the United States foreign 
labor is gradually replacing the custom of sending whole families 
into the field during the harvesting season. 

Washing. — On entering the factory the beets are first washed 
to remove adhering soil, sand and pebbles. This work is accom- 
plished in long troughs, each containing a revolving shaft which 
carries pins set in the form of a screw. These push the beets 
along the trough against a stream of water, and the rubbing 
against one another loosens the dirt which is carried away by 
the water. 

Extraction of the Juice. — In considering the method of extrac- 
tion of the juice from the beet the composition plays an impor- 
tant part. In the beginning of this industry the crushing process 
was used similar to that employed with the sugar cane, but was 



I50 FOOD INDUSTRIES 

found so unsatisfactory that it has been almost entirely replaced 
by the diffusion process. 



Water 

Fiber, etc 

Sucrose 

Invert sugar 

Mineral matter 

Nitrogenous matter. 
Germs acids, etc • . . 
Wax, fat, etc 



Composition of the Composition of the 
sugar cane sugar beet 



67-75% 


75-85 


10-15 


4-6 


n-16 


12-16 


Q.5-I-5 


0.0-0.3 


0.5-1.0 


0.8-1.5 


0.4-0.6 


I-5-2-5 


0.2-0.5 


0.4-0.8 


0.4 


0.2 



A comparison of these two important sugar yielding materials 
will reveal marked differences in composition, which make neces- 
sary the employment of different processes for the extraction of 
the sugar. The cane which contains a relatively large proportion 
of fibrous material yields very readily to crushing by rollers, 
while the beet containing more water and less fiber is reduced 
to a pulpy mass very difficult to handle. It may also be noted 
that the beet contains more nitrogenous and mineral matter and 
less invert sugar than the cane. 

Slicing. — In order to obtain the best results with the diffusion 
method the beets are sliced into thin pieces by a machine con- 
taining revolving knives. These are known as chips in English, 
corsettes in French and schnitzel in German. 

The chips after being weighed are run into vessels in which a 
current of warm water displaces the juice in the beet by the 
process of osmosis. Foreign matter which is colloidal cannot 
pass through the cell walls of the beet; the sugar being crystal- 
line, however, passes out into the water. 

The Diffusion Battery. — The vessels in which the sugar is 
extracted are known as diffusion batteries (Fig. 45). They 
are usually arranged in a series of 10-12 upright iron cylinders 
called cells which are connected by pipes, the outlet from the top 
of one cell passing downward into the bottom of the next, and 
so on through the entire series. The cells can be placed in a 
row or in a circular position. 



FOOD INDUSTRIES 



151 



When ready for operation the chips are fed by means of a 
swinging trough into the cells through a manhole at the top, and 
warm water about 140 F. is passed through the system. The 
circulating liquid remains about twenty minutes in each cell, 
removes sugar from the beet chips and is passed to the next cell. 
Heaters or "juice warmers" are placed between the cells to again 
raise the liquid to the desired temperature. As the juice passes 




Fig. 45. — The Circular Diffusion Battery. (Courtesy of Sugar, Chicago, 111.) 



from battery to battery it grows stronger in sugar content. When 
it has become sufficiently concentrated it is sent to the defecating 
room and fresh water is passed through the batteries. The 
process is continued until practically all the sugar has been re- 
moved from the beet chips. There is rarely more than 0.5 per 
cent, loss of sugar with this method of extraction. 

During the sugar season the battery is constantly in use. Being 
arranged in series it is possible to circulate liquid through from 



152 FOOD INDUSTRIES 

8 to 10 cells while two are being emptied and refilled with fresh 
chips. 

Clarification of the Juice. — The sugar solution known as "the 
diffusion juice" is almost as black as ink as it comes from the 
batteries, and must therefore be clarified. This is usually accom- 
plished by adding an excess of lime, heating, and treating with 
C0 2 . The lime is converted into the carbonate form and in pre- 
cipitating carries down much of the impurities which are re- 
moved by a filter press. The process is usually repeated two or 
three times or until the liquid is clear. The first carbonation is 
stopped when the greater part of the lime has been precipitated, 
but while there is still about 0.1 per cent, of lime in solution. 
The impurities precipitated with the carbonate of lime are insol- 
uble in an alkaline solution, but redissolve in a neutral solution. 
After the first carbonation the juice is filter-pressed to remove 
the precipitated carbonate of lime and impurities, and then car- 
bonated a second time to precipitate most of the remaining lime, 
this time to an alkalinity of 0.02 0^0.03 per cent. The second 
filtration is usually through gravity filters where only a very 
gentle pressure is applied. 

The clear juice is then concentrated in vacuum and separated 
by the centrifuge into molasses and raw beet sugar, the processes 
being similar to those used for cane sugar. 

Raw beet sugar contains substances of decidedly unpleasant 
odor and taste, due to nitrogenous matter and mineral salts being 
taken up from the soil by the roots of the beet. It must there- 
fore always be refined even when modern machinery and up-to- 
date methods have been used. The molasses obtained can be 
worked over until most of the sucrose has been obtained. It is 
very impure, however, from mineral salts and nitrogenous com- 
pounds which give it so disagreeable an odor and taste that it 
is never fit for table use. 

REFINING OF RAW SUGAR. 

Raw sugars with the exception of maple are now refined be- 
fore being placed on the market. The refining of sugar was not 
practiced until about 500 A. D. It first appeared in Mesopotamia 



FOOD INDUSTRIES 153 

and gradually traveled westward, refineries being erected in many 
of the European countries in the 15th and 16th centuries. As 
early as 1689 there was a refinery in New York City which is 
still the center of this industry in the Western World. This in- 
dustry has gradually grown until public taste now demands a pure 
white sugar. As before stated, so far as the beet sugar is con- 
cerned, refining is a necessity since the raw product has a disa- 
greeable odor and taste. Cane sugar, however, possesses in the 
raw state a more fragant odor and agreeable taste than in the 
refined product. 

Refining sugar is in theory a simpler process than the prepara- 
tion of the raw product, but it requires great care and attention 
to details. Experience has shown that it can only be done eco- 
nomically in very large establishments, which are usually located 
on a navigable river, where the cargoes can be readily received 
and unloaded. Refineries are built many stories high so as to 
take advantage of gravity in passing the solution from one pro- 
cess to another. An abundant water supply is also a necessity. 

The process consists essentially in dissolving the crude material, 
separating the impurities and recrystallizing the sugar. 

Outline; of the; Refining Process. — 
Raw sugar washed. 

Centrifuged j was |l s / ru P- 

& ( washed raw sugar. 

Washed raw sugar melted. 

Defecated. 

Filtered through bags | J^^ °" 

Iyiquor bone-blacked. 
Boiled down in vacuum. 

Centrifuged ] ( yellow sugar. 

Washing. — The raw sugar after being weighed is mixed with 
a low grade sugar solution. This process assists in removing 
soluble impurities. From the mixing tank the magma of raw 
sugar and syrup is fed into a centrifuge which is rapidly rotated. 



154 



FOOD INDUSTRIES 



The purified raw sugar remains on the sides of the basket and the 
syrup containing most of the coloring matter, dirt, glucose and 
gum passes through the perforations. The purified raw sugar is 
left 99-99^ per cent. pure. 

The Melter. — The washed raw sugar is dissolved in a melting 
tank which contains steam coils and a revolving arm for stirring. 
When the density of the liquid is about 30 Be., it is pumped into 
defecators or "blow-ups." 




Fig. 46. — Filter Bags. 

Defecators. — Here the solution is treated for the removal of 
such impurities as organic acid and fine suspended matter. Dif- 
ferent clarifying agents can be employed, such as alum or blood 
albumin. To a large extent now a treatment with calcium acid 
phosphate or phosphoric acid and milk of lime is used. The 
mixture is heated and agitated for about twenty minutes. Soon 
a flocculent precipitate separates, carrying with it suspended 
matter and some of the coloring. 

Filtration. — The impurities are removed by a mechanical filtra- 
tion through cotton-twill bags enclosed in coarse, strong netting 
sheaths. They are 6-7 feet long and 5-6 inches in diameter. The 
open end is tied tightly around a metallic nipple by which the 
bag is suspended (Fig. 46). The first run of liquor is often 
muddy and must be refiltered. When the filter bags have become 
exhausted they are rinsed in several waters. The mud washed 



FOOD INDUSTRIES 155 

out contains about 20 per cent, of sugar part of which can be 
recovered. 

Bone-black Filters. — These filters are large cylindrical iron 
tanks filled with bone-black, a material obtained by the charring 
of bones and reducing them to a granular form by a crushing 
process. Bone-black has the power of decolorizing. About one 
pound is used to one pound of sugar. In passing through these 
filters the sugar solution loses most of its color, a small amount 
of ash and organic impurities. It is collected in storage tanks ac- 
cording to its color and purity. The char in time loses the power 
of removing color and must be revivified by being washed, 
drained, dried, put in a kiln and highly heated to expel organic 
impurities. 

Vacuum Pan. — The decolorized sugar solution passes to the 
vacuum pan and is then boiled to grain. 

Centrifugal. — After cooling, the separation of the sugar and 
syrup is accomplished by means of centrifugal force. At this 
stage blue water is sometimes used to give a white appearance 
to the sugar. 

The sugar is dried and passed through screens to separate it 
into grades. It is bagged or barreled to appear on the market 
as granulated sugar. 

Sugars are coarse grain or fine grain according to the length 
of time allowed in crystallizing. When the operation is slow, 
the crystals are large; rapid crystallization yields small crystals, 

Block sugar may be made in two ways. 

I. The boiled mass from the vacuum pan containing syrup ' 
and crystals of sugar may be drained into conical moulds and 
allowed to stand for about two weeks. It is occasionally washed 
by means of a pure sugar solution. The uncrystallized sugar 
slowly drains off through a small hole opened at the point of 
the cone. The dried sugar is then cut into cubes. A modified 
form of this process, which greatly shortens the time, is now 
being used in Europe and to a slight extent in America. By 
centrifugal force the cones can be freed in a few minutes from 
the syrup and the sugar after drying can be cut into blocks. 



156 FOOD INDUSTRIES 

II. Granulated sugar while still moist can be pressed into 
blocks by an ingenious machine, and gently dried in an oven. 

Powdered Sugar. — Granulated sugar can be reduced to a pow- 
der. When very finely ground it is placed upon the market as 
confectioner's sugar. 

Yellow Sugar. — The syrup obtained as one of the final products 
in the refining process contains much sugar and can be worked 
over for a second sugar and second syrup. Sugar obtained by 
the treatment of syrups usually appears on the market as light 
brown sugar ; darker colors are largely low grade sugars. 

Utilization of the By-Products. — Wherever primitive methods 
for the extraction of cane sugar are used little thought is given 
to the by-products. This is not true, however, in progressive 
countries where modern machinery and methods are employed. 
Under such conditions the utilization of waste matter is being 
carefully considered. Such material is obtained as follows: 1st, 
refuse of the beet and cane ; 2nd, impurities removed in the clari- 
fying processes ; 3rd, molasses. The beet tops make an excellent 
food for cattle. They may be dried in the sun or with mechan- 
ical means or they may be converted into ensilage. The beet 
pulp remaining in the diffusion batteries, may also be utilized 
as cattle food in the form of wet pulp where it can be used im- 
mediately, in the dried state, or after conversion into ensilage. 
In the cane sugar industry the leafy portion of the cane top is 
fed to animals, while the bagasse has been utilized mainly, in 
the past, for fuel purposes. In recent years it has been discov- 
ered than an excellent quality of paper may be manufactured 
from bagasse. While very little is being done along that line at 
present the development of paper manufacture in connection 
with this industry, may prove of great importance. 

In both the cane and beet sugar industry the filter cakes ob- 
tained during the clarifying processes are rich in mineral matter 
and may be successfully used as fertilizer. 

Molasses constitutes the most valuable by-product. As it 
contains a large percentage of sugar which cannot be crystallized 
with ordinary methods, chemical means are being devised for 



FOOD INDUSTRIES 1 57 

its extraction. Beet sugar molasses contains 50 per cent, of su- 
crose. By treatment with calcium, strontium or barium hydrox- 
ides., it is possible to precipitate the sucrose as insoluble saccharate 
which after filtration may be decomposed and recovered as su- 
crose. Beet sugar molasses being rich in nitrogenous and min- 
eral constituents may be utilized for fertilizing material with 
certain kinds of soil. It is also useful as a cattle food and for 
fuel purposes. 

Molasses from the cane industry may be used as a table syrup 
or for feeding cattle after being mixed with bagasse or such 
material as bran meal or similar products. In both the beet and 
cane sugar industries the molasses is used largely for the manu- 
facture of rum and alcohol. Lesser products obtained through 
fermentation of cane sugar molasses are acetic, butyric, capry- 
lic and other fatty acids. Many valuable by-products of a nit- 
rogenous nature may also be obtained from beet sugar molasses. 

Maple Sugar. — A sugar and syrup highly prized for confec- 
tionery and table use can be obtained from the maple tree. In 
the United States they are made almost entirely in Vermont, 
New York, Ohio and Indiana. The process is comparatively 
simple. In the spring when the sap begins to run the trees are 
bored and the sap escapes into receptacles. It is usually evap- 
orated in open kettles and allowed to crystallize. The sugar is 
sold in the raw state, as the delicate flavor so much desired is 
lost in refining processes. 

Date Palm Sugar. — In India the date palm yields a low grade 
crude sugar known as "jaggary." Much of this sugar is shipped 
to England for refining. 

Sorghum. — The sorghum cane belongs to a family of grasses 
resembling the sugar cane. It has been known and valued in 
China for many centuries. Many attempts have been made in 
this country in recent years to extract sugar from the sorghum 
but without great success. The juice contains dextrin bodies 
which prevent crystallization of part of the sugar. It is used 
largely, however, for the production of syrup. The stalks can 
be utilized for the manufacture of coarse wrapping paper and 
the seeds for fodder. 






158 FOOD INDUSTRIES 

Cane Syrup. — Cane syrup is prepared largely in small mills in 
our own Southern States by the use of primitive methods. The 
juice of the sugar cane is extracted, clarified, partly inverted and 
evaporated until 25-30 per cent, of the water remains which is 
sufficient to prevent the crystallization of the sugar. 

Adulteration of Sugar. — With the exception of pulverized sugar 
very little adulteration has been found 'in the United States on 
account of the cheapness of the product. Sugar sold in the pow- 
dered form, however, has been adulterated from time to time 
with flour, glucose, chalk, silica and gypsum. 



CHAPTER XI. 

FRUITS, VEGETABLES AND NUTS. 

Among the most important commercial food products of the 
world are found fruits and vegetables. Whenever obtainable 
wild varieties of fruit seem to have been among the earliest foods 
used by primitive man and it cannot be told now with any degree 
of certainty when their cultivation was started. So long a time 
has elapsed, however, that with a few exceptions the cultivated 
products of to-day bear little resemblance to the very small, 
woody, inferior fruits of the wild parent. Whether savage or 
civilized every nation has also cultivated plants for use as vege- 
tables and those that are most highly prized are the result of 
long cultivation, the origin of most being lost in antiquity. 

Importance in the Diet. — In temperate climates fruits have 
been used largely on account of the pleasant flavor and the custom 
has long prevailed to look upon them more as an agreeable addi- 
tion to the diet rather than as staple food. It has been left to 
modern science to show the important part that fruit and vege- 
table acids and mineral salts, especially those containing lime, 
phosphorus and iron, play in maintaining the chemical equilib- 
rium of the body. Fruits and vegetables supply the organism 
with much of the necessary mineral matter in an acceptable form. 
For percentages of individual ash constituents in the edible por- 
tion of important fruits and vegetables see Sherman's "Food 
Products," pages 347-9. The peculiar type acids present produce 
by combustion bicarbonates which assist in maintaining the alka- 
linity of the blood, thus having the tendency to correct the ill 
effects of a diet high in protein. 

With certain exceptions fruits are mildly laxative due to cer- 
tain elements which they contain and to the cellulose which acts 
as a diluent and irritant to the intestinal tract. Many of the 
ordinary foods are too concentrated ; they lack bulk. This defi- 
ciency can readily be supplied by fibrous fruits and vegetables, 
such as primes, figs, apples, berries, lettuce, spinach, corn, beets, 
squash, tomatoes, cucumbers, etc. Most of these can be con- 



l6o FOOD INDUSTRIES 

sumed either in the raw or cooked condition. According to 
recent investigation some raw or uncooked foods, notably lettuce, 
tomatoes, celery, nuts and similar products appear to be essential 
in the diet since certain small components known as vitamins are 
destroyed during the cooking and canning processes. While not 
as yet well understood it is now believed that vitamins are essen- 
tial to health and their absence may be the cause of certain dis- 
eases, for example, scurvy and beri-beri. 

Fisher and Fisk* recommend that the diet in middle life should 
decrease in the consumption of meat and all flesh foods as age 
advances, and that fruits and vegetables, especially those of bulky 
character and low food value be increased. 

From an economic standpoint fruits and vegetables are reason- 
ably cheap sources of energy when compared with many other- 
foods. Their agreeable flavor, great variety, comparatively low 
cost, composition and importance in maintaing the chemical 
equilibrium of the body place them therefore, among our staple 
foods, rather than as pleasant accessories in the diet. 

Definition and Classification. — To define the terms fruits and 
.vegetables with any degree of accuracy seems almost an impos- 
sibility. An attempt has been made to differentiate between 
these two food products by the acid and sugar content, classify- 
ing those that contain both as fruits, all others as vegetables. On 
the whole that arrangement does not appear to be as satisfactory 
as the distinction current at the present day which depends 
largely on the usage. As a general custom vegetables are con- 
sumed together with meats, while those products which precede 
or follow the meal and form a separate course are known as 
fruits. It is apparent from these customs that fruits are largely 
considered as appetizers and stimulants of digestion. 

Fruits are generally divided into three classes: ist, stone, which 
include peaches, plums, cherries and apricots ; 2nd, seed, such as 
apples, pears, grapes, oranges, lemons and kindred fruit; 3rd, 
small, in which berries of all varieties are placed. The principal 
exceptions to these divisions are melons, cucumbers and tomatoes 

* How to l,ive, by Fisher and Fisk. 



FOOD INDUSTRIES l6l 

which are more nearly allied to what are popularly known as 
vegetables. 

Vegetables are usually classed as follows : tubers, represented 
by the potato ; roots, such as turnips, carrots and beets ; leaves, of 
which spinach and lettuce are the most important; flowers, which 
include such foods as cauliflower and Brussels sprouts; stalks, 
such as celery and rhubarb; shoots, of which asparagus is the 
most important. 

Composition. — The composition of a majority of ripe fresh 
fruit reveals a large proportion of water, a fair percentage of 
carbohydrates, a small amount of protein, organic acids, essential 
oils, ethereal salts and mineral matter. On account of the high 
water content in many varieties it has been suggested that fruits 
containing 80 per cent, or more be classed as "flavor fruits." This 
class would include many of the common fruits, such as apples, 
pears, peaches, plums, oranges and most berries. Fruits with less 
than 80 per cent, would be known as "food fruits" and would in- 
clude the banana, fresh figs and grapes. In most of the fruits 
and fruit products the carbohydrates are the food constituents 
most abundantly represented. Cellulose always appears giving 
stability to the structure. Pectose bodies are represented in a 
great number of fruits and vegetables, for example, green grapes, 
cranberries, currents and white turnips, the quantity growing 
smaller as the product reaches the period of ripeness. They give 
to fruit in the presence of acids the property of forming jelly. 
Other carbohydrates, such as cane sugar, invert sugar which in- 
cludes glucose and fructose, and starch occur in varying propor- 
tions. The flavor of fruit is due partly to organic acids which 
include malic, tartaric and citric. These acids are found in 
various proportions and frequently occur as acid salts of potas- 
sium, sodium o<r calcium. In the ash of fruits can also be found 
small quantities of phosphates, carbonates, sulphates and chlor- 
ides. The importance of these acids and salts has already been 
mentioned. 

In the composition of vegetables less water is found, carbo- 
hydrates are well represented by starch as in the potato, while 



1 62 FOOD INDUSTRIES 

sugar can be found in relatively large proportions in beets, par- 
snips and onions. In the legumes the protein constituents are 
of special interest and a high mineral matter content make spin- 
ach, lettuce and celery important articles in the diet. 

Cultivation. — Marked improvements have been made in culti- 
vation during recent years. Varieties can now be planted which 
will mature with different degrees of rapidity yielding products 
commonly known as early, medium and late varieties, thus ex- 
tending the season in one locality over several weeks. Special 
attention along the lines of cultivation is also given to such 
fruits and vegetables as will stand handling, transportation and 
storage. In former times it was the invariable habit to pick these 
products in the green state and ship them to the market trusting 
that they would develop sufficiently to be salable. This idea is 
rapidly dying out except in such tropical fruits as the banana. 
The extension of the cultivation of some types such as asparagus 
has resulted in placing that vegetable within the reach of nearly 
everybody where in the past it was used exclusively by the well- 
to-do. 

Through the efforts of the modern horticulturist natural fruits 
that were full of seeds and pits thus making them objectionable, 
have been so improved that in some cases seedless varieties 
are being successfully grown. Examples may be found in the 
banana, the seedless oranges and lemons and to some extent the 
seedless persimmons. Within our own areas can now be grown 
fruits which for a long period were considered tropical. Cali- 
fornia in recent years has supplied the market with fresh olives 
and figs. Undoubtedly these improvements are largely due to 
the work carried on by the United States Department of Agri- 
culture and at the Experiment Stations of the various states. 

Handling on the Farm. — Among the necessary steps for the 
preparation of fruits and vegetables for the market may be in- 
cluded harvesting, storage, cleaning and packing. Storage on the 
farm is usually for the purpose of holding these products for 
higher market prices. Methods differ with the various articles 
but conditions must always be such that decomposition will not 



FOOD INDUSTRIES ' 1 63 

start. Apples are generally picked before they are thoroughly 
ripe and placed in piles in the orchard until they acquire a mellow 
taste. When picked fully ripe they must be eaten within a short 
time as they cannot be stored. The care of apples is simple 
but exact. They must be kept dry and cool, the cooler the better, 
but must never be frozen. All decaying fruit must be removed 
at once from contact with the sound fruit or the trouble will 
spread with great rapidity. Almost all varieties of grapes can be 
kept if packed loosely in cork chips or similar material. 

In general all vegetables should be stored in a dark, dry place 
of cool, even temperature. Celery can be held advantageously 
if it is well packed in salt hay and put into pits or underground 
cellars, or it may be held in a cool place without washing or 
trimming by placing with the heads up in a long, deep box and 
filled around the roots with sand which should occasionally be 
moistened. Cabbages and head lettuce can readily be wintered 
at a temperature near freezing if they are properly piled just as 
they are taken from the ground. When carrots are held in cold 
storage or in cellars they will keep best if placed on slat plat- 
forms and covered lightly with sand. Onions should be cured in 
the sun for several days if they are to be stored and a dry airy 
place of storage is essential since they deteriorate rapidly in 
dampness. When being held to take advantage of market rises 
in prices the tops are frequently left on to protect them against 
bruising. In storing potatoes not only excessive moisture should 
be avoided but extreme dryness since the latter causes them to 
shrivel. To prevent shriveling of vegetables a covering of sand 
or soil, kept dampened, is frequently used. The root vegetables, 
such as turnips, beets and the like, should also be kept intact 
since the removal of the tops or leaves causes a loss of liquid con- 
tent and a decided diminution in the flavor. Cabbages, lettuce 
and similar plants should never have the outer leaves removed 
until just before they reach the consumer. In shipping long dis- 
tances the butts of asparagus stalks are occasionally dipped in 
paraffin to retain the sap of the plant. 

Before being sent to the market a rough cleaning of vegetables 
is necessary. Roots are removed after which they are washed 



164 FOOD INDUSTRIES 

and roughly dried. Produce should always be carefully graded 
before being packed. Usually fruits are divided into three 
grades, Firsts or Primes, Seconds and Culls. Firsts or Primes 
must be uniform in size, color and shape, of an even degree of 
ripeness and free from insect injuries, bruises and other defects. 
Seconds must be good, fairly uniform specimens, not noticeably 
marked by insects, fungus or other damage. Culls are those 
specimens which will not fill all the requirements of either of the 
other grades. Crates, boxes or ventilated barrels are now used 
for most products. In some localities growers find it profitable 
to wrap certain kinds of fruit in paper bearing an attractive 
label. The use of wrappers has a tendency to prolong the keep- 
ing qualities as well as to add to the attractiveness. The old 
practice of shipping vegetables, such as potatoes and turnips, in 
sacks should be abandoned as not sufficient protection is afforded 
for the material during handling. White potatoes, contrary to 
the general belief are quite delicate. The skins are thin and if 
bruised they do not form the protection usually relied upon. 

Transportation and Storage. — The storage of fruit and per- 
ishable products has become a great industry in this country. 
Through the application of cold storage in transportation it is 
possible to bring properly ripened fruits and vegetables from 
long distances. Modern methods are a great contrast to the old 
idea of carrying green products without special cooling conditions 
trusting to incipient decomposition to produce an effect similar to 
ripening. Through storage and the possibility of shipping long, 
distances the season of most fruits and vegetables extends the 
year round, flooding of the market at certain periods is prevented 
and prices are more uniform. 

Only the best fruit should be stored ; those which are uniform 
in size and color and are free from blemish or mechanical injury. 
The essential factors in storage are good ventilation, sufficient 
moisture, good insulation and control of temperatutre. Ventila- 
tion is necessary in order that vapors given off by the fruit may 
be removed and that sufficient oxygen may be present for the 
respiration of the fruit. The change of air also helps to keep 



FOOD INDUSTRIES 165 

the surface of the fruits fairly dry and tends to hold rots in 
check. Moisture should be present in sufficient quantities to 
prevent the shriveling of the fruit or the product might be un- 
salable. Maintaining desirable temperatures is largely dependent 
on good insulation. Storage house walls usually have dead air 
spaces or walls filled with sawdust or mineral wool in order to 
prevent the transfer of heat from without, thus warming the air 
within the storage chamber. After the material has been stored 
it should not be handled until it is ready to be repacked for ship- 
ment to market. A loss of 10-25 per cent, always occurs due to 
evaporation and rotting. 

Marketing. — Since it is a common practice to eat most fruits 
in the raw state, they should be handled and marketed under 
sanitary conditions. Fruit which has fallen to the ground will 
be soiled with earth, water or other material which may contain 
typhoid or another type of pathogenic bacteria. Investigation 
has also shown that fruits exposed to street dusts and other un- 
favorable conditions, such as flies and various insects, become 
covered with bacteria and may be a possible source of contagion. 
Local rules are now in force to protect fruits and vegetables from 
the dust of crowded streets, overhandling and insects. A trans- 
parent medium, such as glass or celluloid, is generally used as a 
covering. Notwithstanding these protections market fruit should 
always be washed before being eaten. 

> Fruit Products. — Various methods of preserving fruits and 
vegetables, for instance drying, preserving and canning are 
treated under the heading of Preservation of Foods and the by- 
products of fruits, such as the preparation of wines and cider 
under Fermentation Industries. 

Candied Fruit. — A wide variety of fruits are now being can- 
died or crystallized and should belong properly to the class of 
confectionery. The process used in Portugal, which is one of the 
most important producing countries, consists in repeatedly boil- 
ing the unripe fruit in strong syrup, draining after each operation 
and eventually drying the product on trays in the open air. An- 
other method frequently employed is boiling the unripe fruit 



1 66 FOOD INDUSTRIES 

until tender, then suspending it in strong syrup, kept concen- 
trated by occasional evaporation, until the fruit has become al- 
most transparent. It is next placed in drying rooms until the 
syrup has crystallized. 

Jellies, Jams, Marmalades and Fruit Butters. — The preserva- 
tion of fruits, fruit juices and fruit pulp with sugar has grown 
to be an important industry in the United States. Jellies are 
sweetened products obtained by boiling fresh almost ripe fruit or 
berries in sugar syrup, straining while hot and allowing the clear 
liquid to cool and solidify. The solid fruit residue may be boiled 
for some time with additional sugar and water yielding an inferior 
type of jam. As a rule jam is prepared by reducing the entire 
fruit to a pulp and cooking in a sugar syrup. Fruit butters are 
less sweet than jams and usually have the addition of spice or 
cider. Marmalades are made by boiling the pulp or juice of 
thick-rind fruits, such as the orange, grapefruit or komquat and 
portions of their rind with sugar. Apple pulp is frequently 
added to give the peculiar transparent, jelly-like consistency. 

NUTSl 
Nuts as they appear in the market ready for use are in reality 
the pits of a variety of pulpy inedible fruits yielded by a large 
number of deciduous trees. It is the custom to dry and remove 
the pulpy envelope before storage and marketing. The impor- 
tation of nuts is still important commercially although many of 
these varieties which were formerly grown exclusively in foreign 
countries are now being successfully cultivated in many parts of 
the United States. California especially raises big crops of 
walnuts and almonds while Louisiana and Texas are noted for 
pecans. Except for a few varieties, which include almonds, Italian 
chestnuts and the English walnut, imported nuts are largely 
products of forest trees. On account of the tough and fibrous 
nature of the shell nuts survive rough handling in transportation 
in excellent condition, but it is a mistake to hold the opinion that 
they need not be protected from the attack of mold, insects and 
worms by suitable storage conditions. They can be safely car- 
ried through the winter if held in a cool, dry place, but cold 



FOOD INDUSTRIES 167 

storage at a temperature just above freezing is desirable during 
the summer months. 

Composition. — The composition of the edible portion of nuts 
is evidently not understood by the average consumer. Until com- 
paratively recent years they have been considered in our coun- 
try merely as a luxury or something to be eaten at odd times, but 
fortunately a better appreciation of their food value appears to 
be gradually increasing. As a result of research work carried 
on at the California, Maine and Iowa Agricultural Experiment 
Stations a table has been published giving the average composi- 
tion of nuts and nut products.* The water content is usually low 
so nuts must be considered as concentrated food. With the ex- 
ception of chestnuts which contain notable proportions of starch 
all nuts consist largely of peculiar fats or oils usually of the 
drying class, protein and cellulose. Rich in oil are the pecans, 
Brazil nuts, butternuts, filberts, hickory and walnuts, all contain- 
ing from 60-70 per cent. fat. In general the nuts are also high 
in protein surpassing most ordinary animal and vegetable foods 
in this respect. Varieties which contain over 20 per cent, include 
peanuts, butternuts, almonds, beechnuts and pistachio. Starch 
as a rule occurs in small amounts with the exception of chest- 
nuts, which contain 73 per cent, and beechnuts, pinenuts and 
peanuts which have about 18 per cent. The agreeable flavor and 
odor of many nuts are due largely to harmless compounds of the 
glucoside class for example amygdalin of the almond. 

Digestibility. — On account of the high fat and protein content 
nuts are more desirable as the base of a meal rather than as the 
dessert. Excessive use of nuts at improper times has established 
for them a reputation of indigestibility which they do not deserve. 
When eaten in a reasonable manner they yield very satisfactory 
results but do not entirely replace animal protein. The roasting 
of chestnuts and other starch-containing forms tends to make 
them more digestible. The practice of salting almonds and vari- 
ous other nuts has no influence on their digestibility but modifies 
the taste making the large proportion of fat more acceptible to 
the palate. 

* Farmer's Bulletin No. 332. Nuts and their Use as Food. 



l68 FOOD INDUSTRIES 

Nut Products. — In foreign lands nut flours and meals are used 
in large quantities for preparing bread and cake but as yet they 
have found little favor in the United States. In general they 
are prepared from the ordinary edible nuts by blanching, thor- 
oughly drying and grinding. Nut oils, particularly that of the 
walnut, beechnut and peanut are highly prized as salad oils in 
some parts of Europe. South America uses Brazil nut oil for 
table purposes. Cocoanut oil is used largely in the tropics and 
in the United States not only for culinary purposes but on a large 
scale for technical applications. Recently nut pastes have come 
upon our market and on account of their agreeable taste and 
nutritive qualities are gaining rapidly in favor. Of these pea- 
nut butter is the best known. It is prepared by reducing the 
clean, roasted nuts to a paste by grinding. Salt and oil may or 
may not be added. On account of the high fat content they are 
apt to become rancid so are usually marketed in small jars. 



CHAPTER XII. 



ALCOHOLIC BEVERAGES. 

Alcoholic beverages may be classified as follows : 

f Beer. 

i Ale 
Malted fermented <{ -r, 1 

j Porter. 

L Stout. 
Malted distilled <J Whiskey. 
Sweet or dry. 

p , j Red, Claret, Burgundy, etc. 

^oior | white, Sauterne, Rhine, etc. 

( Still, most of the natural wines. 
"Wines -{ C0 2 -s Sparkling, Champagne and Spark- 

le ling Moselle. 
{Natural, containing not more than 
15%. Most of the natural wines. 
Fortified, Sherry, Port and Maderia. 
Distilled wines. <{ Brandy. 

Cordials, Iyiquors and Gin. 
Sophisticated Wines. 
Historical. — The use of alcoholic beverages dates back to the 
earliest historic times ; hardly a race of men is known even 
among savage tribes which has not its fermented drink. The 
process of beer brewing is of great antiquity but undoubtedly 
that of wine making is of still earlier origin. It may well be 
imagined that primitive man stumbled upon this process by acci- 
dent. A vessel containing crushed fruit juice set aside for 
future use may have been found to contain a drink far more 
exhilarating than the ordinary fresh fruit juice. Early we find 
that in all countries where fruit could be readily grown a fer- 
mented drink of this kind was used. Through this simple art 
of wine making, aided by the development of human intelligence, 
the discovery was finally made of how a fermentable sugar could 
be obtained by the treatment of a grain. From that time fer- 
mented grains were used, during seasons when fruit could not 
be obtained, and in regions not adapted to the growing of fruit. 
The art of beer making must have been discovered in early times, 



170 FOOD INDUSTRIES 

for references are made to the beverage in Egyptian records 
dating back to 3,000 B. C. It is related that an attempt was made 
by their government to control the alcoholic industry over forty 
centuries ago. The Egyptians taught the ancient Greeks and 
Romans the art of brewing and beer was used as a beverage by 
the soldiers of Caesar's army. Latin authors show that the drink 
was extensively used in their time in Western Europe. The 
Saxons became accustomed to its use before they settled in Brit- 
ain, and for centuries it has been used as the national beverage by 
all the English people. 

Beer was prepared from barley which could be readily grown 
in the British Isles and was indulged in at every meal by men,, 
women and children. A housewife was judged as much by her 
skill in brewing as by the bread that she baked. Families became 
noted for making exceptionally fine beer and recipes were handed 
down in verbal form, from parent to child, and the secret most 
carefully guarded. Beer being a common drink of most of the 
European people before the establishment of the colonies in 
America, it followed naturally that the early settlers brought 
with them to the New World the art of brewing. 

Fermentation. — For the production of alcoholic beverages, the 
manufacturer is as dependent upon the yeast plant as the maker 
of bread. The baker desires carbon dioxide only, while the 
brewer needs for his product, alcohol principally and, in some 
beverages, carbon dioxide also. 

Even under the most favorable conditions there is a limit to 
the amount of alcohol that yeast can produce. When the alco- 
holic strength reaches 14-15 per cent., yeast can no longer propa- 
gate itself and fermentation ceases. Conditions for its growth, 
such as temperature, food, oxygen and moisture, have been care- 
fully studied in connection with this industry, and modern scien- 
tific research has placed at the disposal of the brewer of to-day, 
a wealth of knowledge which was not known to his predecessors. 
Most conspicuous among the scientists who made investigations 
along these lines was Louis Pasteur, the father of modern bac- 
teriology. It was from the study of the phenomena of brewing 



FOOD INDUSTRIES l/l 

that he finally gave to the world the theories of fermentation. 
The study of brewing has contributed much to science, for re- 
search work has also been done along the lines of: ist, processes 
of germination in seeds; 2nd, the chemistry of carbohydrates 
and protein compounds; 3rd, the action of micro-organisms and 
enzymes. 

Yeast for the brewer's purpose is divided into two groups, 
namely, top yeast and bottom yeast. For its growth top yeast 
requires rather a high temperature — 6o -8o° F. Fermentation 
is very active; the rapid evolution of C0 2 causes the liquid to 
bubble violently, and as the C0 2 escapes to the surface much of 
the yeast is carried to the top of the vat. This type of yeast is 
used for ales, English beer, alcohol, whiskey and high wines. 
Bottom yeast acts at a lower temperature — 40°-50° F. Fermen- 
tation is very slow, the evolution of C0 2 is gradual and the 
yeast remains on the bottom of the vat. 

In fermenting at a high temperature yeast generally dies. At 
a low temperature, it can be kept for a considerable time and can 
sometimes be used as a starter for the fermentation of the next 
liquid. Above 86° F., the alcoholic fermentation readily passes 
into the butyric, lactic, acetic and other types, hence much study 
has been given to the temperature of fermenting beer. 

Temperature for growth : 

Yeast ferment 32°-i2o° F. 

Lactic ferment 50°-i3o° F. 

Acetic ferment 50°-i22° F. 

With these facts in mind the brewer on the continent and in 
America uses a low temperature, possibly 48°-5o° F. This al- 
lows the growth of yeast and prevents the development of lactic 
and acetic ferments. 

THE BREWING OF BEER. 

Raw Material. — For the manufacture of beer, water, yeast, 
hops and a malted grain are necessary. The water should be 
free from organic impurities and in general should be moderately 
hard. Continental brewers use a soft water, but in England and 
America, the presence of gypsum is preferred. Water contain- 



172 FOOD INDUSTRIES 

ing sodium chloride, calcium and magnesium sulphates has been 

found to be very satisfactory. A soft water has a greater solvent 

power on protein which is likely to undergo decomposition. 

Hops are the catkins of the hop plant. They contain several 

bitter principles which give a desirable flavor to beer. Hops 

also act as an antiseptic. In the early days of brewing beer was 

always prepared from wheat and barley; later oats, millet and 

anise were sometimes substituted. At the present time, barley 

stands foremost among the cereals used in this industry, on 

account of its flavor and yield of diastase. Rye also occupies a 

prominent position and in Russia and Austria wheat is still 

largely used. In some parts of the United States corn under the 

name of grits plays an important part, while rice is used largely 

in the Orient and by American brewers. 

Processes in the Manufacture of Beer. — 

f Steeping. 

Malting Couching. 
& ) Flooring, 
t Drying. 

Preparation of the wort. 

Boiling. 

Cooling. 

Fermentation. 

Preservation. 
Malting. — In the classification of the carbohydrates, we find the 
disaccharid maltose C^H^Ou. This substance is never found 
in nature in large amounts as are sucrose and lactose, but must 
always be prepared by allowing the enzyme diastase to act upon 
starch. Here by the process of hydrolysis starch passes through 
the dextrin stages to maltose. Maltose is therefore a partially 
digested carbohydrate and since much of it occurs in beer, that 
beverage contains material of food value, as well as stimulating 
principles. 

Except in very large breweries malting is now generally done 
by a separate industry. This process of changing barley into 
malt is divided into four stages : steeping, couching, flooring 
and drying. When the barley is received at the malting house 



FOOD INDUSTRIES 173 

dust, dirt, broken kernels and foreign seeds must first be removed. 
This is accomplished by revolving sieves and strong currents of 
air. It is now ready for the processes of malting during which 
period the production of diastase is the chief aim of the maltster. 
The mode of formation is not yet known but it occurs during the 
sprouting of the grain. 

In order to soften the grain it is soaked in water in large 
wooden vats for two or three days, fresh water being added 
from time to time. During this period any imperfect grains 
remaining will float and can easily be removed by skimming; 
perfect grains gradually sink. This process is stopped when the 
grains have softened so the skin can easily be removed. A test is 
usually made by piercing the grain with a needle. By this time 
the grain should have absorbed sufficient moisture to allow 
germination to begin so the water is drawn off. The swollen, 
softened grain is couched by being piled in heaps about 15 inches 
deep, on a cement floor, in rooms moderately light. The tem- 
perature is very important, about 75 F. is maintained, as a higher 
degree often causes mold growth. In the olden times it was 
necessary to carry on this process in the spring and autumn. 
Now malting plants are artificially controlled in temperature so 
couching can be carried on in any part of the year. The grain 
is kept moist by a frequent sprinkling with water, a good cir- 
culation of air' is maintained to supply sufficient oxygen, and it 
is turned from time to time. The grain gradually begins to 
"sweat," the temperature rises, and an agreeable odor is given off. 
At the end of 24 to 30 hours, tiny rootlets have appeared and 
sprouting has begun. 

By means- of wooden shovels it is next spread out on the floor 
in layers of about 10 inches. This is called flooring. To pre- 
vent heating too rapidly every few hours it is turned over so new 
grains are exposed; frequent sprinkling keeps the grain moist. 
From 5 to 8 days, the tiny sprout called "the acrospire" is al- 
lowed to grow. Among the enzymes released during germination 
cytase, diastase and peptase, are of importance to the brewer. 
The two former bring about the hydrolysis of the starch granule 
while the latter influences the protein. 



174 



FOOD INDUSTRIES 



The production of diastase increases as germination proceeds 
until it reaches a maximum, then it begins to decrease. It is at 
the maximum stage when the acrospire has grown 3/ A of the 
length of the grain. 




Fig. 47- — Roller Mill for Grinding Barley Malt. (Courtesy of United States 
Brewers' Association.) 



Germination is stopped by drying. This may be accomplished 
by air-drying or in a kiln. The character and odor of the beer 
are much influenced by the method of drying. A low tempera- 
ture produces a pale malt, higher heat gives yellow, amber and 



FOOD INDUSTRIES 



175 



brown. After drying the rootlets are brittle and can easily be 
removed by passing the grain through sieves containing rotary 
brushes. The grain is now called barley-malt. 

Automatic malting in closed cylinders is used on the continent 
and to some extent in the United States. By this process the 
grain is first steeped in the same manner as in the floor system. 
It is then transferred to a metal cylinder or drum which is ro- 




Fig. 48, 



-Filter Presses for Clarifying the Wort. (Courtesy of United States 
Brewers Association.) 



tated slowly to keep the growing barley moving while moist air is 
blown through the mass. Temperature and humidity can be 
carefully controlled by this means. Drying is accomplished by 
either transferring the grain to a kiln or by simply passing hot 
air through the drum. 

The Wort. — The preparation of the wort or the mashing 
process is the second stage in the making of beer. The malt is 
cleaned and coarsely ground in a roller mill (Fig. 47), and the 



176 



FOOD INDUSTRIES 



grits are mixed with water (about 120 lbs. of malt per barrel of 
water) in the mash-tub which contains a stirrer. Another cereal, 
such as corn or rice may be added but the unmalted grain is first 
boiled with some malt before being added. This process is in- 
tended not only to extract the dextrin and maltose already 
formed, but to allow the diastase to act upon any starch present 
so it may be converted into dextrin and maltose. Peptase is 
also active, converting protein matter to the more easily digested 



■fe It 




___ 


Si|:^ 


Em 


■M H i* "SB I^Mk / %Jw bV 




■pi 
1 


1 IT 


■* 


■•PPPBj 





Fig. 49. — Copper Boilers. (Courtesy of United States Brewers' Association.) 



form of peptone. Great care is given that the temperature be 
kept at the point where the diastase and peptase can do the most 
effective work. Tests are made from time to time with iodine to 
determine if all the starch of the mash has been converted into 
dextrin and maltose. After the conversion is complete the con- 
tents of the mash-tub is passed through a mash-filter (Fig. 48) 
and the watery extract is drawn off. This is called the first ex- 



FOOD INDUSTRIES 177 

tract. Sufficient water is then passed through the filter to thor- 
oughly extract all sugar from the grains. These extracts when 
mixed are known as the wort. The wort contains soluble ma- 
terial produced by the action of the ferments. 

Boiling. — The wort is run into copper kettles where it is boiled 
from one to two hours (Fig. 49). Hops are added during this 
time. The boiling accomplishes several desirable changes: ist, 
Unchanged protein coagulates. This change is assisted by tan- 
nic acid dissolved from hops. 2nd, The wort is concentrated and 
sterilized. 3rd, The active principles of the hops are taken up by 
the wort, giving taste, aroma and keeping quality to beer. 

From the copper kettles the wort is run into the hop-jack, a 
straining tank where the hops and coagulated protein are per- 
mitted to settle and the hops are strained off. 

Cooling. — After straining off the hops the temperature of the 
wort must be dropped rapidly to 45 ° F. the point needed for the 
fermentation of yeast. This is accomplished by running the hot 
liquid into cooling tanks, then passing it quickly over pipes 
through which brine is being circulated. When cooled to the 
desired temperature, it is run into tanks located in the fermen- 
tation cellar. 

Fermentation. — For a long period fermentation of the wort 
took place in great open vats made of oak, after a prepared yeast 
had been added. Recent experimentation has proved that fer- 
mentation is far more satisfactory when carried on in closed iron 
vats lined with porcelain. In the use of the closed receptacle, 
pure yeast cultures may be utilized with great efficiency. As 
bottom fermentation is used in America, the temperature is kept 
below 58 ° F. This method produces less alcohol but the flavor 
of the beer is considered better. In England top fermentation is 
more popular. It requires a higher temperature, 65°-68° F., the 
action is rapid and more alcohol is developed. 

Main fermentation lasts from 4-8 days, when a high tem- 
perature is used; and from 9-10 days in bottom fermentation. 
During this period new yeast cells are constantly forming and 
in their desire for food are breaking down sugars into alcohols, 
12 



i/8 



FOOD INDUSTRIES 



carbon dioxide, glycerin and succinic acid. As the action goes 
on there is a tendency for the temperature to rise. It was cus- 
tomary in olden time to float in the vats, cans containing ice. As 
most modern breweries have a cooling plant, brine is circulated 
through coils placed near the top of the vats. By these means the 
desired temperature can be maintained. At the end of this pro- 
cess, it is called "young beer." 




Fig. 50. — Filter Presses for Clarifying Beer before Bottling. (Coitrtesy of 
United States Brewers' Association.) 



For the after fermentation the young beer is drawn from the 
vats into storage casks, the temperature is kept low, the yeast 
settles gradually and the beer matures and clarifies. The storage 
fermentation lasts from three to six months. 

When the beer has thoroughly matured it is run into so called 
chip casks. New beer in the first stages of fermentation is added 
and after about four days of fermentation an isinglass clarifying 



FOOD INDUSTRIES 1 79 

medium is added and the cask is sealed or bunged. This bung- 
ing process prevents the escape of the carbon dioxide with which 
the beer becomes impregnated or saturated, after which the beer 
is ready to be filtered (Fig. 50), bottled or barreled. 

Preservation. — Pasteurization is sometimes used and is a per- 
fectly legitimate method of preserving beer. The temperature 
is raised to 140 F., which is high enough to kill any ferment 
present. 

Great care must be given to the bottling and barreling process. 
The barrels are usually coated on the inside with pitch and are 
regularly inspected. They may be disinfected with S0 2 or thor- 
oughly sterilized with live steam and rinsed with filtered water. 

Any carelessness at this stage causes the souring of beer. The 
keeping qualities depend on absolute cleanliness in barreling or 
bottling, purity of the water and yeast, and the quality of the 
grain and hops. Sanitary conditions should be maintained 
throughout brewing. 

The use of preservatives, stich as silicylic acid or boracic acid, 
is forbidden by many countries. 

Composition of Beer. — Beer contains when ready for use dex- 
trins, maltose, peptones, alcohol 3-7,^2 per cent., and carbon di- 
oxide. The addition of hops gives tannin, volatile oils which 
give a bitter flavor, alkaloids which have a soporific effect, and 
resins which contain antiseptic principles and protect against 
undersirable fermentation. Bitter substances, such as quassia, 
gentian root and ginger, have been added to give pungency, but 
their use is now prohibited by most governments. 

Adulteration. — The adulteration of beer is of early origin. In 
1620 mention is made that cocculas indicus was used in Holland 
and during the reign of Queen Anne, of England, it was neces- 
sary for Parliament to pass a law prohibiting brewers from using 
this substance, as well as other unwholesome ingredients. One of 
the earliest books written on food adulteration, exposes the prac- 
tices of the brewers of the early 19th century. Such substances 
as ground alum, coloring matter, beans, quassia, capsicum, cara- 
way seeds, grains of Paradise, strychnine and picric acid were 



l8o FOOD INDUSTRIES 

frequently used. Beer many times was prepared from chemical 
preparations, substituted for malt and hops. 

While much has been said against the brewer of modern times, 
it is safe to say that adulteration has practically disappeared in 
this industry. There is a prevailing belief that beer contains a 
variety of substances, such as opium, belladonna, strychnine and 
corrosive acids, but these ideas are not true. Preservatives are 
not allowed by law, so are no longer used. Sodium bicarbonate 
is sometimes added to overcome acidity and to increase the head. 

Substitution. — Beer is generally supposed to be made from 
barley malt. This operation is long and involves a certain amount 
of waste so is expensive. While barley malt is always the basic 
cereal, brewers sometimes replace a portion with glucose. This 
is practically the same practice that is found in malted breakfast 
foods. It is not, however, injurious if the glucose is a pure ar- 
ticle. 

Kinds of Beer. — Lager beer is used in Germany and to a great 
extent in America. It is always made by bottom fermentation 
where the process is allowed to proceed slowly and has, therefore, 
less alcohol, but a more desirable flavor and better keeping qual- 
ities. Lager means stored so this variety of beer is always stored 
six months. Before artificial refrigeration was introduced it was 
brewed in the winter and stored until the following summer; 
now brewing is carried on throughout the year. There is usually 
an addition of a large amount of hops. 

Ale is a light colored beer made by top fermentation and there- 
fore contains more alcohol, about 7^2 per cent. The strong 
bitter flavor is due to the addition of larger quantities of hops 
than is used in ordinary beer. It is practically the only beer 
made in England as they use top fermentation. 

Porter is a dark colored beer. When a high temperature is 
used in kiln-drying malt the carbohydrates present become par- 
tially charred and caramel is formed. This gives color and flavor 
to the beer. Porter contains about 5 per cent, alcohol. 

Stout is a porter with a higher percentage of alcohol usually 
about 7 per cent. It contains more of the extracts. 






CHAPTER XIII. 



ALCOHOLIC BEVERAGES. (Continued.) 



THE WINE INDUSTRY. 

Wine is the fermented juice of a fruit which contains sugar 
or its derivative invert sugar. While any sweet fruit may be 
used, the term wine generally refers to the juice of the grape 
for that is the only fruit which is cultivated on an extensive 
scale for the manufacture of wine. Grapes owe their wine pro- 
ducing value to several important constituents: ist, the large 
amount of grape sugar which often constitutes 18-20 per cent, 
of the weight of the fresh fruit and more than half of the solid 
matter; 2nd, the organic acids of which tartaric is the most im- 
portant; 3rd, the proteins which greatly influence fermentation. 

The cultivation of the grape for this purpose began in the 
Orient, and gradually extended into the middle and south of 
Europe, and into the northern part of Africa along the countries 
bordering on the Mediterranean. France, Spain and Portugal are 
now the chief wine producing countries of Europe, although 
along the banks of the Rhine and Moselle Rivers as well as other 
parts of Germany, Austria and Italy, grapes are cultivated in 
large quantities. The islands of the Atlantic and certain sections 
of America, viz., California, New York, Ohio and Virginia, are 
also important wine producing centers. The climatic conditions 
and the character of the soil greatly influence the quality of the 
grape. The vine grows in soil rich in lime, and magnesia. It 
appears to thrive best along the borders of rivers and on ground 
which can attract considerable moisture from the subsoil. The 
composition varies from season to season due to weather condi- 
tions. A warm summer with moderate amount of rain gives the 
highest percentage of sugar and tartaric acid. During a cold, 
rainy, grape growing season, less sugar is produced and a higher 
percentage of malic acid is developed. 

The varieties are very numerous and there is great difference 
in the cultivation according to the locality, but wherever grapes 



1 82 FOOD INDUSTRIES 

are grown for the wine industry, great care and experience are 
absolutely essential. 

Processes in the Manufacture of Wine.— 

Grapes picked when fully ripe. 

Crushed between rolls or with the feet. 

Pressed or centrifuged. 

Fermented. 

Aged. 
Picking. — Grapes are taken for wine making either when ripe 
or slightly over ripe according to the character of the wine. The 
harvesting begins early in September and continues into Novem- 
ber. The early grapes usually contain the largest amount of 
sugar, but those taken later in the season when allowed to be- 
come over ripe, produce a wine having a peculiar bouquet which 
is much prized. 

The grapes are picked by hand or with a fork. Except in 
certain districts the common practice is to gather all the grapes 
carried by the vine and to sort them into grades. The care given 
in sorting differs greatly according to the quality of the wine. 
For the finest wines all unripe, bruised, sun-burned and rotten 
grapes are discarded. In the manufacture of red wine, the stems 
are also removed by causing the grapes to pass through a series 
of sieves by which the stems are retained. The almost universal 
practice with white wines is to allow the grapes to remain upon 
the stems during the pressing, as the separation of the must and 
marc takes place before the astringent principle which they con- 
tain can be communicated to the must. 

Extraction of the Juice. — In order to extract the juice, the 
grapes must first be softened. This may be accomplished by 
treading underfoot in vats or by crushing between grooved roll- 
ers, great care being taken that the pressure be gentle, so that 
the juice from the pulp only will be extracted. Heavy pressure 
forces the juice from the skins and bruises the seeds and stems if 
these have not been removed. This greatly injures the flavor 
of the wine. Treading with the feet has probably been the most 
satisfactory method. Wooden shoes are now worn as they are 



FOOD INDUSTRIES 1 83 

more sanitary and give a gentle even pressure. The softened 
grapes are pressed or passed through a centrifugal machine. At 
this stage, for white wines, the skins are removed if the blue 
grapes are being used. If red wine is wanted, the skins are left 
on. After pressing or centrifuging, the juice is known as the 
"must" and the pulp and skins as the "marc." The quality of 
the wine depends on the "must." The first portion is often col- 
lected separately as it is the juice of the ripest and sweetest 
grapes. That which is pressed from the grapes later contains 
more acid and tannin, for it is obtained from the unripe grapes 
and skins. 

Fermentation. — The fermentation of red wines usually takes 
place in large open vats of wood, marble or stone. White wines 
are generally fermented in barrels with only the bungholes opened 
for the escape of the carbon dioxide generated. Although the 
use of yeast cultures has recently been introduced in certain 
localities, fermentation is still almost always spontaneous in the 
wine industry. Spores of the wild yeast are always present on 
the skins of grapes and in the air of grape producing regions so 
fermentation begins at once. A temperature of about 50 F. 
is maintained for bottom fermentation and yo° F. if top fer- 
mentation is desired. 

Fermentation is divided into three stages. 

Main Fermentation. — During this period the yeast cells are 
very active, the liquid becomes turbid, carbon dioxide is given 
off, a scum forms and a sour taste and odor are developed. It 
lasts from 1 to 3 weeks according to the temperature used. When 
fermentation is completed, the evolution of gas ceases, yeast cells 
and other suspended matter settle to the bottom and the liquid 
becomes clear. During this process the proteins are largely con- 
sumed by the yeast. 

Still Fermentation. The new wine is run into tungs or 
casks where it remains until the following spring. During this 
after fermentation the young wine slowly loses its sugar and 
remaining protein substances. Acid potassium tartrate and cal- 
cium tartrate crystallize and form deposits known as argols and 



184 FOOD INDUSTRIES 

lees. For further information see Chapter VIII, Leavening 
Agents. 

Storage Fermentation. The storage of wine lasts for many 

years according to the quality. Very rich wines are held for 
eight years or more, cheaper varieties from two to four. During 
this process of ageing the desired bouquet is gradually devel- 
oped. This is probably due to the formation of ethereal salts 
from the alcohols and organic acids present in the wine. Tannins 
and other impurities are gradually precipitated. Sometimes dur- 
ing the ripening process clarifying agents, such as gelatin and 
albumin, are added to assist in carrying down suspended matter. 
The treatment with gelatin is particularly applied to sweet and 
heavy white wines which frequently remain more or less turbid. 
Albumin as a rule is used with red wines which contain tannic 
acid. 

Improving Wines. — The juice pressed from the grape varies 
in composition to a considerable extent from year to year, ac- 
cording to the amount of rainfall, sunshine and temperature. 
As a result it is usually treated or improved in some way to 
maintain certain proportions. The must of a poor season can 
be so treated as to bring it up to the standard of a must of a 
good year, by correcting the ratio of acid to sugar. Any excess 
of acidity may be overcome by neutralizing with marble-dust and 
the addition of a certain quantity of cane sugar. To improve 
the sweet taste without injuring the keeping qualities glycerine 
is sometimes added. Wine deficient in alcohol and containing 
a large amount of acid is frequently improved by the addition of 
wine of a preceding year. The practice of adding gypsum has 
prevailed extensively in the countries of south and south-western 
Europe. This is known as "plastering." It rapidly clarifies the 
otherwise turbid liquid thus enabling the manufacturer to place 
his product on the market at an earlier period. Plastering also 
deepens the color and adds to the keeping qualities. Public opin- 
ion is strongly against the custom, however, as it is supposed to 
have an injurious effect on the consumer of the wine. The pro- 
cess is now controlled by law. 

In certain heavy wines, notably Port and Madeira, alcohol is 



FOOD INDUSTRIES 185 

added and they are known as fortified wines. The amount of al- 
cohol developed during fermentation never exceeds 12-13 per 
cent. Alcohol is added to fortified wines until the strength 
reaches 16-22 per cent. 

CHAMPAGNE. 

The art of making champagne was discovered by a monk dur- 
ing the 18th century. Both white and red grapes are used and a 
special treatment is necessary. Great care is given in picking so 
that the grapes are not crushed, or coloring matter might be added 
to the juice. The branches are detached one by one and carefully 
sorted according to their ripeness. In some localities even the 
individual grape is examined. After picking they are crushed 
quickly in order to prevent any coloring matter being taken up. 
The first press liquor only is used for champagne, the second 
and third being utilized for cheaper wines. After the must has 
been allowed to stand long enough for impurities to settle, it is 
run immediately into casks for the main fermentation, which 
usually takes place in cool cellars. The young wine is allowed to 
ferment until the early winter, when it is cleared with isinglass 
and racked off into other casks. At the end of one month this 
operation is repeated. Before bottling it is mixed with a certain 
proportion of old wine and cane sugar. The bottles are then 
placed in a horizontal position in champagne vaults, where they 
remain six months or longer. New fermentation starts, much C0 2 
is developed and a quantity of sediment is formed. This scum 
can later be removed by first placing the bottles in an inclined 
position so impurities will gather near the cork, which is then 
carefully removed just long enough to allow the sediment to be 
blown oft". By chilling the bottles just before the operation, the 
pressure is reduced and the cork can be liberated with very 
little trouble. The loss in the bottle is replaced quickly by sugar, 
fine wine and aromatic essences, and the bottle is again corked 
and wired. Champagne is usually held for a period in order to 
allow blending and ripening to take place before it is placed upon 
the market. 

An imitation champagne is sometimes made by forcing carbon 
dioxide into a sweet white wine to which liqueur has been added. 



1 86 FOOD INDUSTRIES 

Sophisticated Wines. — The so-called sophisticated wines are- 
prepared by mixing water, alcohol, tannin, sugar, tartaric acid, 
fruit essences and the like, closely imitating the composition of a 
regularly fermented wine. 

Composition of Wine. — Wine contains water, alcohol, glycerin,, 
ethereal salts, and other volatile products giving flavor and bou- 
quet, grape sugar, tartaric and malic acids, mineral matter, pec- 
tin, gummy matter and tannin. 

Adulteration. — The practice of adulterating wine is almost as 
old as the wine industry. The ancient Greeks and Romans were 
forced to pass strict laws to prevent such practices, and officials 
were appointed to detect and punish those who adulterated wine. 
Substitution and adulteration are still being carried on exten- 
sively. Innumerable substances have been added — water, glyc- 
erin to give sweetness, coloring agents, such as berries, beets, coal 
tar products and holly-hocks, flavoring to make inferior wines 
appear older and better grade, cloves, bitter almonds and elder- 
berry juice. In France, on account of the failure of the wine 
crop in recent years, a wine has been made from raisins and 
prunes and substituted for grape wine. Raisin and prune wine 
is a perfectly legitimate product when sold under its own name. 

By-Products. — Cheap wines are prepared by adding water and 
sugar to the marc and fermenting it. This wine is largely used 
by the poorer people on the continent. The marc may also be 
utilized in the production of cheap brandy and vinegar, as a fer- 
tilizer, for fuel purposes and for cattle food. 

In Europe tannic acid is extracted. This is used extensively in 
the textile industry. The preparation of cream of tartar from 
argols is another important industry connected with wine making. 

Preservation. — Pasteurizing and the use of preservatives are 
practiced in this industry similar to the processes described under 
beer making. 

DISTILLED LIQUORS. 

Distilled liquors differ from malted beverages, for example beer, 
ale, porter and stout, and from products of the wine industry, 
in two important particulars : ( i ) In the fermentation process, 



FOOD INDUSTRIES 1 87 

every effort is made to have a maximum amount of alcohol de- 
veloped; (2) The fermented liquid is distilled and redistilled in 
order to have a product rich in alcohol. 

There are three classes of distilled liquors. 

Brandy. — The first class of distilled liquors uses as a basis 
wine which when distilled produces brandy. The product con- 
tains much of the flavor and bouquet of the original wine. Fic- 
titious brandy may be made from grain or potatoes, but a true 
brandy is always manufactured from the fermented juice of a 
fruit. Apples, peaches, plums, cherries and blackberries may be 
used, but by far the largest amount is produced from grapes. 

The brandy industry has been chiefly carried on in France, 
particularly in the southwest districts, where the product is 
known as cognac. The vineyards in this part of France have 
suffered greatly in recent years and the making of imitation 
cognac is greatly increasing. 

A very inferior grade of brandy is sometimes made by adding 
water to the marc, fermenting and afterward distilling the 
product. 

Rum. — A sugar-containing material, such as molasses, is 
always utilized in the production of rum. This industry is car 
ried on very largely in close proximity to sugar cane and suga: 
beet factories, which readily supply the raw material in the form 
of molasses and sugar scums. South America, the East Indies 
and the West Indies, especially Jamaica, use enormous quantities 
of molasses from the cane in this way. In the West Indies rum 
is always flavored with caramel. The beet sugar industry also 
supplies much molasses for this purpose especially in France and 
Germany. For the production of rum the sugar-containing ma- 
terial is diluted, fermented and distilled until the product con- 
tains approximately 55 per cent, of alcohol. 

Whiskey. — In the manufacture of whiskey a starch-con- 
taining material, for example a cereal, is used as a basis. It is 
malted, fermented and distilled. The cereal used as raw material 
depends entirely upon the country. England uses barley, wheat 
and oats and the United States, corn, rye and barley. Scotch 
whiskey is usually made from malted barley which was formerly 



1 88 FOOD INDUSTRIES 

dried in a kiln and heated by glowing peat. A peaty flavor was 
imparted and retained by the final product, which gave to Scotch 
whiskey a characteristic aroma and taste that were highly prized. 
Now, peat is scarcely used so creosote is added to give a similar 
flavor. In Russia wheat is largely used giving a whiskey known 
as "vodka." Germany uses the potato almost exclusively for this 
industry. 

Distillation. — In distilling these products advantage is taken 
of the different boiling point of alcohol and water. At a tem- 
perature of 78°-8o° C. alcohol will volatilize carrying with it 
whatever is volatile. The still may be very simple in construc- 
tion with the same principle as the water-still or it may be very 
complicated. A process known as fractional distillation is quite 
extensively used. The hot vapor is chilled by coming in contact 
with metallic diaphragms, where a portion condenses and can be 
separated from the richly alcoholic vapor, which passes on to 
another compartment. The stills are frequently columnar in 
shape, and are divided into compartments by horizontal copper 
plates, perforated with holes, and furnished with valves opening 
upward. Dropping pipes are attached to each plate and are 
connected at their lower end with shallow pans. When the still 
is in operation, the fermented liquid heated to the vapor state, 
is allowed to enter the lowest compartment. As it rises the 
vapor comes in contact with a metallic diaphragm which lowers 
the temperature, thus causing part of the water content to con- 
dense and drop back through the pipe into the shallow pan. The 
alcoholic vapor passes on to the compartment above where the 
temperature is again lowered, causing more water to condense. 
The operation is continuous and can be carried on until the per- 
centage of alcohol is raised as high as 95 per cent. This high 
figure is only used in the production of 95 per cent, alcohol. 
Higher than this can only be obtained by chemical means. Four 
per cent, of the water may be removed by lime and the remaining 
1 per cent, by metallic sodium. The product is then known as 
absolute alcohol. In the distillation of fermented liquids for al- 
coholic beverages, a strength of about 45 per cent, is usually ob- 
tained, although it may vary from 30 to 60 per cent. 



FOOD INDUSTRIES 1 89 

Bonded Whiskey. — While the chief constituent of whiskey is 
ethyl alcohol, when freshly made it also contains small quantities 
of higher alcohols, fatty acids and other volatile products known 
as fusel oil. By storing in charred oaken casks for a consider- 
able period of time, the raw flavor of the original spirit is masked 
by the extractive matter taken up from the wood and the quality 
is greatly improved. 

Liquors and Cordials. — Liquors and cordials are strongly alco- 
holic liquids sweetened with cane sugar and flavored with fruit 
essences or herbs. Gin is an alcoholic extract of juniper or sloe 
berries, slightly sweetened and then distilled ; its alcoholic con- 
tent is usually about 40 per cent. 

Physiological Effect. — A discussion of the physiological effect 
of the use of alcoholic stimulants is not within the scope of this 
book. For such information see Applied Biology by Bigelow, 
page 539- 

CIDER. 

Cider may readily be regarded as a wine since it is the fer- 
mented juice of the apple. It is made extensively wherever that 
fruit can be readily grown. Cider is manufactured for use as a 
beverage and as a foundation for what is regarded in the United 
States as the best kind of vinegar. The fruit is chopped and 
crushed in a mill, and the extracted juice is run into barrels, where 
it is allowed to ferment. Where the same care is given as in the 
preparation of wine from grapes, the product is a superior grade 
and has good keeping qualities. The greater part, however, pro- 
duced in this country has a very short life, owing to the poor 
quality of the raw material and to carelessness in manufacturing 
processes. The apples used are often those not marketable on 
account of small size, bruises, greenness or decay, the perfect 
fruit as a rule being used only when the crop is so large that it 
pays better to make cider than to sell the apples at a low price. 

Cider is mildly alcoholic in its nature, containing in the sweet 
stage about 1 per cent, and as it ages from 3 to 5 per cent, alco- 
hol. In hard cider 8 per cent, alcohol is frequently found. Sugar 



I90 FOOD INDUSTRIES 

organic acids of which malic predominates, salts and extrac- 
tives are also present, the latter giving odor and taste. 

VINEGAR. 

Vinegar is a product obtained by the fermentative action of a 
group of bacteria, on a sugary solution which has undergone 
alcoholic fermentation, such as cider, wine, malted products and 
the like. The micro-organisms cause the oxidation of the alcohol 
into aldehyde and ultimately into acetic acid according to the 
following equation : 

C 2 H 5 OH + O — CH 3 CHO + H 2 0, 
CH 3 CHO + O — CH3COOH. 

In this country cider or wine vinegars are preferred while in 
England malt vinegar is largely used. Until recent years, cider 
vinegar was obtained by allowing barrels partly filled with cider 
to remain standing in a warm cellar for a number of months, the 
bungs being left open. This process was so tedious, however, that 
it has now been almost entirely replaced by what is known as 
the "quick vinegar process." Cider is allowed to percolate slowly 
through perforated casks filled with twigs or shavings, which 
have been saturated with old vinegar. By this method the product 
is ready for use in a short time, but the best varieties undergo a 
process of ageing before being placed on the market. 

In wine producing sections, vinegar is prepared from cheaper 
grades of wine and from wines which have spoiled by the action 
of the acetic ferment. White wine vinegar is usually consid- 
ered the best It contains a little more acetic acid than cider 
vinegar, also tartaric acid and some of the mineral salts of the 
grape, such as acid potassium tartrate. 

Cider vinegar has 4^2 to $ J / 2 per cent, acetic acid and marked 
traces of malic acid which has come from the apple. Mineral 
matter, sugar and extractives are also present, the total solids 
constituting about 2 per cent, of the entire weight. 

As England is neither a wine nor cider producing country, it 
is customary to make vinegar from a malted product as the wort 
of beer, the addition of hops being omitted as they possess an 



FOOD INDUSTRIES 191 

antiseptic effect. Such a product is dark in color and has con- 
siderable extract matter, in which dextrin, maltose, protein, min- 
eral matter and extractives can be found. The percentage of 
acetic acid is not as high as in wine and cider vinegar, therefore, 
-a small amount of sulphuric acid is frequently added, 0.1 per 
cent, being allowed by law. 

Vinegar may also be made from sugary solutions as molasses 
or by synthetic processes. Synthetic vinegar is the nearest ap- 
proach to pure acetic acid, but as it contains less dissolved ma- 
terial, it lacks flavor. 

Adulteration. — Vinegar has been largely subject to substitution 
and imitation. The best varieties on our market are cider, wine 
and malt vinegar. Substitution may be detected by slowly evapo- 
rating almost to dryness 100 cc. of vinegar and examining the 
warm residue. That of cider vinegar will give a distinct odor 
of baked apples and will respond to the malic acid test. The resi- 
due of wine vinegar contains tartaric acid and has the aroma of 
the grape. Malt vinegar gives a malt odor, distilled vinegar that 
of burnt sugar, while no residue on evaporation indicates a syn- 
thetic product. 

KOUMISS. 

Koumiss is a fermented drink used largely in Russia and by 
Asiatic tribes. It was originally fermented mare's milk, but for 
American purposes cow's milk is usually employed. The process 
is started by adding yeast cultures and a small amount of sugar 
syrup to milk or by mixing fresh milk with some already soured. 
Both the lactic and alcoholic fermentation are started and con- 
tinue for twenty-four hours. The result is a slightly sour milk 
containing alcohol and carbon dioxide. Koumiss is much used 
by invalids and people with weak digestion. 



CHAPTER XIV. 



FATS. 



For information in regard to the source, composition and 
properties of fats, see Chapter I, Food Principles. 

Extraction. — The methods for the extraction of fats differ ac- 
cording to the physical conditions in which they exist, their source 
and use. 

Animal fats are contained in cells composed of protein tissue 
which putrifies soon after the animal is killed causing the fat to 
become rancid. It must therefore be extracted or rendered im- 
mediately to prevent a foul odor from arising. Solid fats like 
tallow or lard are freed from the enclosing membrane by finely 
chopping the material, subjecting to low heat in order to prevent 
hardening of the tissue and drawing off the fat in the liquid state. 
Great care is necessary that the product be not overheated, lest 
the neutral fat decompose into fatty acid and glycerin. The 
temperature should not exceed 130 C. The heating may be done 
in open kettles over direct flame, either with or without the addi- 
tion of a small amount of sulphuric acid, or by the action of 
steam under pressure. In case of animal oils the tissue is boiled 
with water; on cooling the floating oil, it is readily separated from 
the watery liquid. 

The vegetable oils are found to exist in largest quantities in 
seeds and nuts. In order to extract the oil, they are carefully 
cleaned, crushed to break the shell or kernel and ground to a 
fine powder. Crushing is carried out in machines called the oil 
seed mill, some types of which are of great antiquity. The oil 
can then be removed by pressure or by the use of a solvent. With 
pressure heat may or may not be added. Hot pressing gives a 
larger yield, but a better product is obtained with the cold 
method. Many times the cold process is used first for the extrac- 
tion of the highest quality oil, then heat is added for lower 
grades. A larger amount of oil can be obtained by the use of 
naphtha, ether, carbon disulphide and other solvents but this 
method is seldom used for edible oils. 



FOOD INDUSTRIES 193 

Purification. — The extracted oils are in a very crude condition 
containing suspended and dissolved matter of various kinds and 
must be purified even if the oil is to be used for manufacturing 
purposes, as in soap-making. Purifying can be carried out by 
nitration through various media, such as cotton fiber, bone-black, 
Fuller's earth, etc., with or without a treatment with caustic al- 
kali, acid, or both. 

BUTTER. 

Butter being the most attractive form of fatty material has 
long been popular as a food product. In the United States and 
Canada it is the chief fatty form of food. Although not as 
largely used for cooking purposes as formerly it still retains its 
high favor as a cold edible fat. Until a very recent period butter 
was a household product, the operation being under the control 
of the housewife. Necessarily made in small quantities with 
crude apparatus and under conditions difficult of regulation the 
quality' of the product varied. With the advent of the creamery 
the operation became part of a considerable industry. Power 
and improved apparatus are employed resulting in an increased 
output of a more homogeneous composition. ' With better sani- 
tary conditions a higher quality has .resulted. 

Composition of Butter. — 

Water 12 — 16 % { Butyrin. 

f Soluble 10 % \ £*?"*?• 

1 ] Capryhn. 

Fat 82.5 + % \ l Caprin - 

f Olein. 
1. Insoluble 90 % \ Palmitin. 
( Stearin. 
( Called curd. The amount is depen- 
Protein (Caseinogen) < dent on the method of separating 

(_ the cream. 

Carbohydrate (Lactose) 

, T . 1 „ 4.4. rtt f Salts of milk (trace). 

Mineral matter o — 4% \ »,, , ,. v ,, ., 
^' { Added sodium chloride. 

The object in butter making is to extract from milk the fat 
Avhich exists in an emulsified form. The United States Standard 
13 



194 FOOD INDUSTRIES 

butter requirements call for at least 82.5 per cent, fat and not more 

than 16 per cent, water. The fat consists largely of palmitin, 

olein and a small amount of stearin in a loose state of chemical 

combination in about the same proportion as found in lard. In 

addition to these non-volatile fats there exists in small amounts 

various volatile fats which give to butter its characteristic taste 

and aroma. The most important are butyrin, caproin, caprylin 

and caprin. 

Processes in Butter Making. — 

f Gravity j Shallow pan. 
I J I Deep setting system. 

Separation of the cream ■{ 

1 
(^ Centrifugal force. 

Ripening of the cream. 

Churning. 

Washing. 

Working. 

Separation of the Cream. — The gravity method of separating 
fat from milk has been used from the earliest times to compar- 
atively recent years. This was called "gravity creaming." As 
fat exists in the form of an emulsion by allowing milk to rest, the 
globules being lighter will gather near the surface of the liquid. 
In so rising they carry with them certain of the milk constituents 
in minute particles as milk sugar, caseinogen and mineral 
matter. The earliest idea in creaming was the use of the shallow 
pan, and although rapid changes have been made of late years, 
a large quantity of butter is still being made by this method. As 
quickly as possible after milk has been drawn from the cow, it 
is run into shallow pans, cooled and placed in a clean, well venti- 
lated cellar where it is kept about 36 hours at a temperature ap- 
proximating 6o° F. After the fat has gathered at the top it is 
removed by a skimmer. With this method the separation is im- 
perfect as about 20 per cent, of the fat remains with the skim 
milk. 

The use of deep pans for creaming has been very popular in 
many parts of Europe for the past thirty years. The tempera- 
ture of the milk is rapidly dropped to 40 F. where it is main- 



FOOD INDUSTRIES 



195 



tained by ice or cold water from 12 to 24 hours. This insures a 
more perfect separation of the cream, the loss involved under 
favorable conditions being less than y 2 the amount which occurs 
in the shallow pan method. 

In the United States the deep setting system has never been 
largely employed. This is undoubtedly due to the fact that 
shortly after its introduction abroad a machine was patented by 
which fat could be removed from milk by centrifugal force. 
Although the cream separators as they are called were at first 
very crude, it is to their development that we owe revolutionizing 
methods in butter-making (Fig. 51). In separating cream by 




Fig. 51. — Early Experiment in Cream Separator. 
(Courtesy of the De I,aval Cream Separator Co.) 



this method much labor is saved and less loss is involved. The 
separator consists of a revolving bowl or drum usually made of 
cast iron. Old-fashioned types have hollow drums but modern 
separators contain contrivances in the bowl to increase the effi- 
ciency of separation (Fig. 52). An entrance is made for the 
whole milk and suitable openings for the removal of the cream 
and the skim milk. When the bowl is rapidly revolved, the 
heavy liquid is thrown toward the outer wall from where it 
finds an exit through the skim milk tube. The cream being 
lighter moves toward the center and is drawn off through the 



196 



FOOD INDUSTRIES 



cream outlet. The separation can be carried almost to perfection, 
the skim milk containing not more than 0.1 per cent. fat. The 
cream separator also assists in clarifying milk as much dirty 
material is thrown against the outer wall of the bowl and can 
be removed from the skim milk bv screening-. 



SIMPLE CREAM SCREW 
ADJUSTMENT 



SIGHT FEED LUBRICATOR. 
(SOLE OIL SUPPLY) 



CENTER BALANCED BOWL 



SPLIT-WING TUBULAR 
OR FEEDING SHAFT, 



ONE PIECE DETACHED SPINDLE 



SEAMLESS ANTI-SPLASH 
SANITARY SUPPLY CAN 



SANITARY FAUCET 

EXTRA HEAVY TINWARE 

REVERSIBLE FLOAT 



HIGH BEARING CASE PROTECTING 
GEARS FROM MILK AND WATER 



HELICAL TOOTH SPUR. PINION 
AND WORM WHEEL GEARS 



BRONZE REVERSIBLE WORM WHEEL 
FRAME JOINING SCREW. 
OPEN. SANITARY BASE 




ADJUSTABLE PAIL SHELf 
DRAIN COCK FOR DRIP SHELf. 



Fig. 52. — Improved De T_aval Cream Separator. 
(Courtesy of the De I<aval Cream Separator Co.) 

Ripening of the Cream. — It is possible to make butter directly 
from sweet cream, but such a product lacks the delicate flavor 
and texture of butter which has passed through a ripening pro- 
cess, and it does not keep as well. This process is essentially the 



FOOD INDUSTRIES 19/ 

holding of cream under favorable conditions for a period in order 
to allow bacterial action to take place. Such action may be 
brought about by bacteria of the air or those natural to milk 
causing the development of lactic acid. The temperature during 
this process is regulated from 6o°-/0° F. and absolute cleanli- 
ness has been found to be essential. Any carelessness at this 
stage is apt to cause other ferments to work upon the milk and 
undesirable flavors to be developed. In order to have a uniform 
taste to butter, the cream is sometimes pasteurized, cooled and 
artificial bacterial cultures are added. Their use was first sug- 
gested by the Danes, who now employ this process largely. Pro- 
fessor Conn of Wesleyan University also highly recommends 
their use, but they have never been as popular in America as 
they have been abroad, although their use is constantly increasing. 
The majority of experts prefer the flavor of butter which has 
been ripened naturally under thorough sanitary conditions. 

The amount of acid allowed to develop depends on the flavor 
desired. Experienced butter-makers usually judge by the ap- 
pearance and flavor or tests can be made for acidity by the use 
of Farrington's alkali tablets. Under-ripening gives an insipid 
tasting product while over- ripening causes the development of 
undesirable flavors and gives a poor texture. 

Churning. — By agitation, it is possible to separate the fat in 
mass, from the ripened cream so it can be readily removed from 
the milk serum. Originally butter was made from whole milk 
after it was sufficiently soured by placing it in the skins of 
animals and violently agitating it. Later time showed the sep- 
aration of cream lessened the amount to be handled and proved 
far more economical. The old-fashioned dash churn worked 
by hand represents an early form of churn. Now churns are 
run by machinery and may be rotating hollow barrels, square 
boxes or more elaborate forms which combine churn and butter 
worker. The best temperature for the rapid gathering of the fat 
is 65°-70° F. and under favorable conditions butter will appear 
in from 12 to 30 minutes. It can then be easily separated from 
the butter-milk. 



I98 FOOD INDUSTRIES 

Washing and Working. — In order to prepare butter for the 
market it is necessary to subject it to a washing, seasoning and 
working process. The washing with water removes the remain- 
ing butter-milk but should be carried out with great caution as 
much of the desirable flavor of butter is soluble in water. Brine 
may be used for wash water or dry salt may next be added and 
the mass worked into a compact form. The working process 
also separates from the butter certain non-fatty constituents of 
the cream, which greatly assists in the keeping quality and gives 
to the butter a finer texture. Salt is added to give flavor rather 
than for its antiseptic properties. The amount should be small 
or the butter will be unpalatable. Many prefer the taste without 
the addition of salt. The product is called sweet butter and is 
generally considered the highest grade butter on the market. 

In Continental Europe salt is rarely used and butter is pur- 
chased every day for immediate consumption. 

Coloring. — The coloring of butter with annatto, saffron or 
coal tar dyes is very largely practiced in the United States. The 
natural coloring of milk varies with the seasons. When cows 
are fed on fresh pasture grasses the butter is a clear bright 
golden yellow, but during the winter months when stall feeding 
is necessary, it develops only a slight yellowish appearance. Since 
the demand is for yellow butter it has become customary to add 
coloring matter during the working process. Although as a rule 
it is harmless the use cannot be recommended. 

Flavor. — The flavor of butter depends largely on the character 
of food given to the cow, to careful methods of manufacture, 
to the amount of salt added, and to sanitary conditions during 
the ripening process and during storage. 

Preservation. — It is a common practice in some sections of 
Europe to heat butter to the boiling point where it is retained 
until all the water has been volatilized. Protein matter can then 
be removed by filtration through cloth and the melted butter run 
into earthen-ware jars. With this process butter made during 
the summer can be preserved for use in the winter. 



FOOD INDUSTRIES 199 

RENOVATED BUTTER. 

A product known as renovated, process or hash butter has of 
late years been placed upon the market. The material from which 
it is made is gathered from dairies scattered over a wide area. 
Dairy butter made under different conditions will vary greatly 
in color, texture and flavor. When taken to a central creamery 
these butters are mixed together, melted, strained to remove 
scum, purified of the rancidity by washing, air is blown through 
to remove disagreeable odors and flavors, and the resulting mass 
is rechurned with fresh skim milk. The product is then colored 
and worked in a manner similar to butter. While the product 
may be better than a poor quality butter, there is danger of 
more or less rancidity in renovated butter. This is caused by 
the purifying process being insufficient, as a prolonged washing 
would remove the butter-fats which are so essential to the flavor 
of butter. 

OLEOMARGARINE. 

The manufacture of substitutes for normal dairy butter began 
in 1870 with the experiments of Mege-Mouries, who suggested 
the use of cheaper fats, as a basis for the preparation of a prod- 
uct to be used in the place of butter. These substitutes have 
been placed on the market under varying names, such as oleomar- 
garine, oleo, butterine and lardine, but all are called oleomar- 
garine by the United States Government. 

Oleomargarine has been greatly misrepresented since the early 
days of its manufacture. It has been said to be made from soap 
grease, the carcasses of animals which have died of disease, 
from material extracted from sewage and other unwholesome 
fatty matter. These statements have been far from the truth, 
for oleomargarine is made from pure material, in the cleanest 
possible manner and under the supervision of the Officials of 
the Internal Revenue. When well made it is equally as whole- 
some as butter and is a very valuable article in the diet of those 
who cannot afford to buy a good quality butter. When sold 
under its own name it is a product well worth being on the 
market. The chief objection has been the enormous amount of 



200 



FOOD INDUSTRIES 



fraud practiced. Since the early days of its manufacture there 
has been a constant disposition on the part of some manufac- 
turers and local dealers to sell it as butter, and in spite of gov- 
ernment inspection this fraud is still being practiced. 

Materials Used. — The fats utilized as a basis for butter substi- 
tutes are those which have been in the diet of civilized people 
for centuries. Mege-Mouries suggested the use of carefully 




Fig- 53- — Chilling Butterine. (Courtesy of Armour & Co., Chicago, 111.) 

washed beef-suet. Neutral lard, lard stearin, cottonseed oil and 
cottonseed oil stearin are now also largely used. Milk is added 
to give flavor and occasionally egg-yolks to give coloring and a 
firmer structure. Salt and coloring matter may or may not be 
added. The government requires a tax of ten cents per pound 
for all oleomargarine colored to resemble butter. 

Processes in Manufacture. — Fats are taken from the slaughter- 
house, washed and cooled as quickly as possible to remove animal 



FOOD INDUSTRIES 201 

heat. They are cut by machinery into small pieces, heated to 
separate fat from the tissue, cooled, stearin is removed by presses 
and the remaining fat is known as oleo oil. To oleo oil a small 
quantity of neutral lard is added to give body. These fats are 
melted, filtered and churned with milk which has been ripened, 
in a like manner to that employed by butter makers in most 
creameries. When the churning process is complete, the butter- 
ine is drawn off into vats filled with ice water which causes the 
fat to solidify into small masses (Fig. 53). The butterine is 
removed by cloth covered screens and deposited on trays with 
perforated bottoms where it is allowed to remain until excess 
water has drained off. After the addition of salt, butterine is 
worked and finished for the market in a manner similar to the 
processes used in butter-making. 

OLIVE OIL. 

Olive oil was the first of the vegetable oils used by the human 
race, and from the standpoint of the palatability it still holds the 
first place. It has been known from the earliest historic times 
and is supposed to have been introduced into Europe from Asia 
Minor. 

Olive oil is obtained from the fruit of the olive tree where it 
makes up from 40-60 per cent, of the weight of the fruit. The 
oil is found in both pulp and kernel, but the pulp yields the better 
quality. The olive tree grows in semi-arid regions, where rain- 
fall is not abundant and where the temperature is fairly high. 
Spain, Italy, Greece, Southern France and Southern California 
are the principal regions where the olive tree is grown. 

For edible oil production the fruit is best gathered just pre- 
vious to maturity when although the yield of oil is less the qual- 
ity is better. For all other purposes fully ripe or decayed and 
imperfect fruit is used. 

The old methods of extraction still practiced on a small scale 
in Spain, Italy and other Mediterranean countries are very crude 
and yield an inferior product. The fruit is placed in a circular 
court of stone or other masonry provided with a heavy mill stone 
operated by a pole with mule power. After thorough pulping the 



202 FOOD INDUSTRIES 

mass is gathered in rush baskets and pressed in a screw press 
worked by five or six men. Inferior grades are obtained by 
repressing after the addition of water. The newer processes 
practiced on a large scale employ the most modern machinery 
and sanitary methods. For producing the finest grades selected, 
hand picked olives are cleaned, peeled and pitted, the meats are 
gently cold pressed, yielding the finest quality of oil known as 
"virgin," "sublime" or "first-expressed" oil. The press cake from 
this operation is subjected to hydraulic pressure and furnishes a 
high grade oil known as "huile vierge." A third variety of edible 
oil is obtained by pouring cold water on the press cake and re- 
pressing; the product is sold as "salad oil." By mixing the pulp 
with hot water and again pressing the mass, a fourth extract is 
made which yields a very inferior product used for soap making 
and lubricating purposes. 

Adulteration. — There has been an enormous amount of adul- 
teration practiced with olive oil on account of the great demand, 
the high price and the ease of substituting other vegetable oils. 
Nearly all of the vegetable oils have the same amber tint as olive 
oil, and when added in certain proportions can scarcely be de- 
tected by taste. Abroad peanut oil has been largely substituted 
for olive oil and in the United States, cottonseed oil has fur- 
nished the chief adulterant. In recent years the more extended 
use of olive oil in the United States for salads and general cook- 
ing purposes has led to very strict regulations by Federal and 
State authorities so that it is hardly possible to sell an adulterated 
oil as genuine. - In fact the label olive oil is generally a sufficient 
guarantee of genuineness. All mixtures of olive oil with other 
oils must be sold as salad oils and must disclose the ingredients on 
the label. 

COTTONSEED OIL. 

Until comparatively recent years, the cotton plant which is 
cultivated so largely in the Southern States, was used only for 
its fiber. The seed, however, has been found to be particularly 
rich in oil, and rapid development in methods of extraction and 
purification have opened up a new industry, and have placed 
upon the market a comparatively cheap and nutritious edible oil. 



FOOD INDUSTRIES 203 

Processes in Manufacture. — The seeds when taken to the mill 
are screened, passed over magnetized iron plates and through ma- 
chines known as linters to remove foreign material, such as sand, 
nails and cotton fiber. The short fiber obtained in the linters 
can be used for the preparation of cotton batting. The cleaned 
seeds are hulled, crushed and heated. The cooked meal is en- 
closed in camel's-hair cloth and subjected to hydraulic pressure, 
by which means the oil is removed. Crude cotton seed oil is red- 
dish in color and must be refined. This is accomplished by the 
following processes. After the addition of NaOH io° Be, the 
oil is heated to 8o°-85° C. and the mass is constantly stirred 
with paddles, until fatty acids are neutralized and impurities 
separate. It is then allowed to remain quiet for many hours in 
a settling tank, after which the "foots" are removed and sold 
to soap manufacturers. The clarified fat is bleached with 
Fuller's earth and the flavor modified by secret processes. 
If it is to be sold as salad oil, it is winterized by drop- 
ping the temperature and removing by filtration, any fatty mat- 
ter which has solidified. The oil must stand eight hours at the 
temperature of refrigeration before it is bottled. 

PEANUT OIL 

Peanut oil is extracted from the peanut by the hydraulic pres- 
sure method, and is refined by processes quite similar to those 
used with olive oil. The first pressing gives an edible oil, used 
extensively in Europe and to a limited extent in the United 
States for salad dressing, either alone or mixed with other oil. 
Subsequent pressing yields a product very frequently employed 
in France for packing cheaper qualities of sardines and other 
food products. Peanut oil is also utilized in the making of fine 
silks as it does not readily turn rancid, and as a lubricant for 
fine machinery because it does not have the tendency to "gum." 
Inferior qualities are used in soap-making and as a basis for 
liniment. The cake which is left after the final pressing is highly 
prized for cattle food, as it contains oil, protein and mineral 
matter. It may also be utilized as a fertilizer. 



204 FOOD INDUSTRIES 

COCONUT OIL 

Coconut oil is the fat obtained from the kernels of the coco- 
nut. At ordinary temperature in our climate it is a solid white 
fat possessing a bland taste and an agreeable odor. When not 
pure, however, it turns rancid quite easily and then acquires a 
disagreeable odor and acrid taste. 

The coconut is the fruit of a tree belonging to the palm family 
and growing on all coasts and islands of the tropics in both hem- 
ispheres. The tree is indigenous to the islands of the Malayan 
Archipelago from where the nuts are supposed to have been 
carried by sea currents toward the east to the Pacific Islands 
and the coasts of Central America and toward the west to Cey- 
lon and the coast of Africa. 

Since the earliest historical times the kernels have been used 
by the natives of India and the South Sea Islands as one of their 
chief articles of food. Primitive methods of obtaining the oil 
which are still being practiced consist in cutting the kernels into 
halves and exposing them to the sun. The sun-dried kernels are 
then boiled with water and the fat removed by skimming. The 
product is known as "cochin oil." For export trade the coconut 
meats are converted into copra by the removal of a large pro- 
portion of moisture. This is accomplished either by sun-drying 
or by kiln drying; the bulk is thus reduced and the danger of 
putrefactive changes taking place is lessened. "Copra oil" is pre- 
pared from the dried product in modern factories of Europe, 
United States and Australia which import the copra in large 
quantities for this purpose. The oil is obtained from the copra 
by the pressure method as is used with oils, such as cottonseed 
and maize. 

Coconut oil has been used for a long period in soap and candle 
making. As the composition is more nearly akin to butter than 
the other edible oils it has replaced butter to a considerable ex- 
tent in many food industries. It is now used by bakers and bis- 
cuit manufacturers, as an ingredient in oleomargarine and candy 
and for culinary purposes. 



CHAPTER XV. 



ANIMAL FOODS. 

The animal foods commonly utilized by man in civilized coun- 
tries include the flesh and various organs of cattle, sheep and 
swine, domestic and wild fowl, fish and shellfish, eggs, milk and 
milk products. 

As a rule these flesh foods furnish more concentrated nour- 
ishment than vegetable substances, more protein and water being 
present and a smaller quantity of carbohydrate. With the ex- 
ception of milk and eggs, the waste in most of these forms is 
greater than that of any other type of food material. 

MEAT. 

In the United States, the term meat generally implies the 
edible portion of cattle, sheep or swine. Animals found in the 
wild state, such as the deer, moose, bear, squirrel and rabbit 
and known as game while highly prized are used only to a lim- 
ited extent. 

The Physical Structure and Chemical Constitution. — Whether 
of domestic or wild origin, the muscle of meat is found to have a 
similar structure when viewed through a microscope. It appears 
to consist of tiny fibers which have the form of tubes, varying 
in length in different kinds of meat and in different parts of 
the same animal. The walls of the tubes consist of a protein 
substance which in the living animal is very elastic and is known 
as elastin or yellow connective tissue. The tubes are bound to- 
gether in bundles by a thin membrane called collagen or white 
connective tissue, a substance of great importance since it yields 
gelatin on boiling. Commercially gelatin may also be obtained 
from the elastin by the addition of an acid, but in the household 
elastin is not materially affected by cooking, except that it shows 
a tendency to harden. 

The texture of meat depends upon the amount of connective 
tissue present, the contents of the tubes and upon the character 
of the walls of the muscle tubes. In a young, well-fed animal, 
the wall of these tubes is a thin delicate membrane and there is 



206 FOOD INDUSTRIES 

little connective tissue. The meat is therefore tender. The older 
an animal is, however, and the more work it has been required 
to do, the denser becomes the membrane and the larger the 
amount of connective tissue, thus giving a tough texture to the 
meat. Muscle systems most frequently used are tougher than 
those which have little exercise hence the difference noticeable in 
the leg and breast of a fowl. 

The value of the meat as food depends largely on the fat and 
the contents of the muscle tubes, which are chiefly protein. In 
the living animal within the muscle tubes may be found liquid 
myosinogen, paramyosinogen, serum albumin, alkaline salts and 
extractives. Carbohydrate occurs in the form of glycogen and 
glucose. As glycogen is not stored in large amounts it disap- 
pears very shortly after death. The texture of meat also changes 
considerably at death caused by the clotting of the principal 
proteins, myosinogen and paramyosinogen. The hardening of 
the muscle tubes known as rigor mortis or the death-stiffening 
causes the meat to become very tough and it can, therefore, 
never be eaten in this stage. Either meat should be consumed 
before stiffening has had time to set in, or it should be hung until 
further changes take place which again give it a tender texture. 
Rigor mortis is succeeded by the first stages of decomposition 
during which acids are developed which not only bring about 
important chemical changes, but develop desirable flavors, fresh 
meat being very insipid. The contents of the muscle tubes 
differ after hanging. They are found to contain myosin, meta- 
protein, extractives, mineral matter and sarco-lactic acid. 

Fat. — All meat, however lean it may appear, contains fat. 
Besides that ordinarily visible there is always present more or 
less occurring in small particles, embedded in the connective tis- 
sue between the muscle fiber. The visible fat varies greatly in 
amount being comparatively small in veal, chicken and most 
game, while in pork, fattened beef and mutton and in the duck 
and the goose, the amount may reach one-quarter to one-half of 
the weight of the entire animal. 

Water. — The amount of water contained in meat also differs 



FOOD INDUSTRIES 20"J 

widely being regulated to a great extent by the fat content as 
other constituents are fairly constant. 

Mineral Matter. — While protein is the chief constituent of 
meat, the mineral matter which it contains, particularly the phos- 
phorus compounds, is also important although it occurs in rela- 
tively small quantities, constituting about 0.3 to 1.9 per cent, of 
the total fresh material. Besides phosphates, sulphates and chlor- 
ides, meat contains potassium, sodium, magnesium, calcium and 
iron. 

Meat Inspection. — Among primitive races the habit of eating 
animals which had died of accident or disease was very common 
and undoubtedly resulted in diseased conditions of the partakers 
of such food. Experience has gradually taught man that it is 
not safe to use the flesh of animals dying from disease and it is 
even undesirable to consume the flesh of healthy animals killed 
by accident, although in the latter case the trouble would arise 
from contamination with bacterial organisms introduced at the 
time of the accident. Even in very recent times the slaughtering 
of animals was conducted under such filthy and unsanitary con- 
ditions that the flesh in many instances became contaminated 
with some of the many forms of micro-organisms present. As 
far as the diseased animals are concerned only certain types, 
such as foot-and-mouth disease and trichina are known to be 
positively injurious. In order to control these difficulties a more 
or less rigid government inspection is now carried on in most 
civilized countries. In the United States, where the Federal Gov- 
ernment exercises control over interstate and foreign commerce, 
officials are empowered to inspect all cattle and food products as 
well as packing houses, provided that the material is to be con- 
sumed in some other state or country. This cares for about 60 
per cent, of the market meat. The remainder is inspected by 
state or local authorities. The evidence of federal inspection is 
usually observed by the ink stamp on the fatty material of beef, 
mutton or pork containing the words "U. S. Inspected and 
Passed," "U. S. Inspected and Suspected" or "U. S. Inspected 
and Condemned." Cold storage establishments are also subject 



208 FOOD INDUSTRIES 

to periodical visits from the federal or local authorities in order 
to verify the conditions of stored food and to ascertain how long 
the articles have remained in storage. This latter precaution is 
now considered necessary since such foods as eggs and poultry 
deteriorate quite rapidly, even under the most carefully conducted 
storage conditions. 

Chief among the diseases found in animals are foot-and-mouth 
disease which occurs principally in cattle, trichina most frequently 
found in swine and tuberculosis which attacks cattle and swine. 

Foot-and-Mouth. Disease. — A malady of cattle and other do- 
mestic animals characterized by the appearance of an eruption 
on the mucous membrane of the mouth and upon the delicate 
skin between the hoofs. Foot-and-mouth disease has long been 
known in parts of Europe and from time to time has appeared 
in the United States, the last, outbreak occurring in the fall of 
1914. It is transmitted readily from animal to animal and on 
rare occasions has also been communicated to the human family. 
As a rule the latter infection occurs among the milkers and 
attendants in dairies and is transmitted by direct contact al- 
though authorities now believe that it may be transmitted also 
by the consumption of milk and milk products from infected 
animals. It can be eradicated by the slaughter of diseased ani- 
mals, disinfection and strict quarantine. 

Trichina. — Swine are sometimes found to be infected with 
trichina, a disease resulting from a minute parasitic worm which 
usually invades the muscular tissues. It was long regarded as a 
harmless parasite but is now known to cause a disease in the 
human family somewhat similar to typhoid fever. Inspection 
in regard to this disease in the United States is not as rigid as 
abroad. Slaughter house statistics show the disease to be less 
prevalent on this side of the Atlantic probably due to the fact 
that a large proportion of swine lead an open air life more or 
less removed from congested human habitation. Except by our 
foreign born population pork is eaten well cooked; this practice 
eliminates danger since trichina is killed at a temperature of 
i55°-i6o° F. 



FOOD INDUSTRIES 209 

Tuberculosis. — Tuberculosis is the most frequently occurring 
disease both in this country and abroad. Among cattle it has 
probably been the most widespread, occurring not only in animals 
intended for slaughter but among dairy cows, particularly those 
of the Jersey and Guernsey breeds. Much experimentation has 
been carried on for many years, to determine at what stage meat 
from animals affected with tuberculosis becomes unfit for human 
consumption. Experts still disagree on this subject. Extremists 
advise the condemning of the entire carcass even though the 
disease may be in an early stage and localized. Most authorities, 
however, take a more moderate view and would allow meat to be 
sold for food where the disease does not exist in a dangerous 
form, or where it is more or less restricted to certain organs. 
Where the disease has become generalized, all agree that the 
entire carcass should be condemned. With modern packing 
house methods, it has been found that even such animals may be 
utilized for the manufacture of valuable fertilizing material. 

Reasons for Cooking Meat. — In great contrast to the carbo- 
hydrate group protein does not become more digestible on cook- 
ing. In fact meat fiber subjected to high temperature or pro- 
longed heating becomes toughened and more difficult of diges- 
tion. It is obvious therefore that we must look for other rea- 
sons for the almost universal custom of cooking meat. Sterili- 
zation is the reason usually given but this is only true to a lim- 
ited extent. As meat is not a good conductor of heat the in- 
terior of large portions, such as roasts, frequently does not reach 
the temperature when all pathogenic bacteria are killed. Neither 
can we hope that harmful ptomaines will be affected if by any 
chance such compounds have been developed. The reason for 
cooking meat even in early ages was probably the development 
of desirable flavors, largely due to the extractive creatin, which 
yields creatinin on heating. This is important as it is now a well 
known fact that we do not derive as much benefit from food that 
we do not relish. 

Changes in Cooking. — ist. The structure of meat is frequently 
changed. Where moist heat or boiling is used the fibers have a 
14 



210 FOOD INDUSTRIES 

tendency to disintegrate. This is caused by the connective tis- 
sue being partially converted into gelatin. 2nd. Certain losses 
always occur in greater or less amount according to the method 
of cooking, temperature and use of salt. A loss of water is 
always involved even when the meat is boiled. Part of the fat 
is removed, the amount depending on the temperature and the 
melting point of the fat. Soluble constituents — albumin, 
mineral salts, extractive and other organic bodies — dissolve es- 
pecially on boiling. To prevent these soluble compounds from 
being lost some means are taken to coagulate the protein on the 
outside, thus forming a protective coating. This can be accom- 
plished by searing. The use of salt and the question of solu- 
bility are also important. In soup and broth where it is desir- 
able to remove as much of the nutriment as possible, salt should 
always be added, as myosin as well as albumin is soluble in a 
dilute saline solution. Where salt is used to saturation, as in 
pickling or when rubbed on the outside of a roast, myosin is re- 
tained in the meat. Care should be given in pickling that satura- 
tion be kept up. 

The greatest losses in cooking have been found to be in boil- 
ing and roasting, protein, mineral matter and extractives being 
the main constituents lost in boiling, and fat during the process 
of roasting. According to Jordan 1 the smallest losses occur in 
pan broiling and in sauteing. 

BEEF EXTRACTS. 

The question of solubility plays a very important part in the 
preparation of beef extracts which may be regarded as soup or 
soup stock prepared from beef. The commercial forms are 
more or less concentrated, the water having been removed in 
vacuo. 

The valuable qualities of such extracts were recognized by old 
time chemists but they were not known to any great extent until 
after the researches of Liebig. In 1865 a company was formed 
authorized by Liebig, and a factory was established in South 
America, where cattle could be extensively raised at a lower 

1 Jordan, Principles of Human Nutrition, p. 317. 






FOOD INDUSTRIES 211 

cost than in Europe. The original method of preparation of 
these extracts was very simple. Finely chopped beef was treated 
with eight times its weight in cold water and the soluble con- 
stituents were extracted by heating under pressure. The extract 
was then filtered, the fat removed to prevent it from becoming 
rancid, and the remaining liquid was concentrated to a paste in 
a vacuum pan. Liebig calculated that it would require thirty- 
four pounds of meat to yield one pound of beef extract, which on 
dilution would make approximately six or seven gallons of beef 
tea. 

When extracts are made according to this method, they con- 
tain besides moisture chiefly mineral compounds 17-25 per cent., 
as potassium phosphate and sodium chloride, and meat bases 
50-60 per cent., as creatin and creatinin. On examination traces 
of albumin, proteoses and peptone have been found but they are 
not present in large enough quantities to add materially to the 
nutritive value. During the process of manufacture the major 
portion of the beef containing practically all of the nutriment is 
rejected. The value of meat extracts must therefore depend on 
the mineral matter and the meat bases or, as they are frequently 
termed, the extractives. 

These extractives of which creatin and creatinin are the most 
important, are nitrogenous compounds but are not able to fur- 
nish the body with constructive material, neither do they yield 
energy. Beef extracts for that reason can scarcely be classed 
as food. Experiments have revealed that animals fed exclusively 
on such material died in practically the same time as those that 
received no food. Notwithstanding the small amount of nutri- 
ment present beef extracts are valuable on account of their flavor 
and effect on the digestive organs. They are the most powerful 
exciters of the gastric secretion that we possess, and are im- 
portant therefore as arousing appetite and as an aid to digestion. 
This is their chief function in sickness and in health. They are 
also of value as flavoring agents. 

Some commercial beef extracts have the addition of protein, 
but the amount is never very great, although advertising matter 
frequently gives customers a false impression as to their nutri- 



212 FOOD INDUSTRIES 

tive value. A series of experiments carried on in 1908 at the 
Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station showed that "Of 
forty-seven preparations examined, ten only were properly 
branded and up to the standard, seventeen were found to be 
misbranded and varying from the standards, and the others were, 
in general, not up to the standards, though not misbranded." 
The very high cost of these extracts was also reckoned. It was 
found that the dry organic matter present cost from $2.68 to 
$10.18 per pound. The amount far exceeds the cost of home 
made beef extracts which are as a rule far better in quality. 

Beef Juices. — Beef juices may also be found on the market. 
They contain substances of the muscle- fiber which may be ob- 
tained by subjecting finely chopped meat to strong pressure, with 
or without the aid of heat, and concentrating the extracted liquid 
in a vacuum pan. Such products are liable to undergo fermenta- 
tion. They may readily be prepared in the home by placing 
finely chopped meat in a jar and surrounding it with water heated 
to 140 F. The juice may then be extracted from the meat by 
pressure with an ordinary lemon squeezer and flavored with a 
small quantity of salt. 

INTERNAL ORGANS. 

In the use of internal organs the custom differs in various 
countries. On the English market quite frequently are seen 
the heart, the lining of. the stomach (tripe), and the kidneys par- 
ticularly those of the sheep. While tripe and kidney may be 
obtained in the United States market, their use is limited and 
the heart is considered of small value. It is disposed of in the 
canning industry or more generally for sausage making. 

Beef tongues are sold largely here and abroad either smoked 
or in the fresh state. As they constitute a valuable by-product, 
they are handled with great care in order to prevent decomposi- 
tion from setting in, and to give the best results in weight and 
appearance. Short tongues are frequently canned while lambs' 
tongues as a rule are pickled. 

Beef's and sheep's livers are sold in the fresh state and as they 
become stale more quickly than any other edible part of the ani- 



FOOD INDUSTRIES 213 

mal, every effort is made to keep them dry and at a low tem- 
perature. They are frequently utilized in the manufacture of 
sausages known as Leberwurst. In the United States hogs' livers 
are seldom used for edible purposes. They frequently are utilized 
as one of the constituents of dog biscuit or as an ingredient of 
table sauce. In former years many were shipped to foreign 
countries where the custom of eating hogs' livers prevails, but 
more stringent laws in regard to methods of preserving such 
material during transportation has greatly restricted the foreign 
trade. 

Calves' brains and sweetbreads are considered delicacies both at 
home and abroad. In the United States the thymus gland of 
young animals is placed on the market as sweetbreads. 

FISH. 

From the magnitude of the fish industry both at home and 
abroad, may be seen the important part that fish and shell-fish 
play in the diet of the human race. The catch in the United 
States alone reaches approximately 2,200,000,000 pounds annu- 
ally, most of which is consumed in this country, a small propor- 
tion only being prepared in various ways for export. The in- 
dustry is divided into two branches inshore and offshore or deep 
water fisheries, the latter of which is more important. It is evi- 
dent, as the sea shore becomes more thickly populated and various 
waste materials are discharged into these waters, that the varie- 
ties and quality of the fish for edible purposes will seriously 
suffer. In fact the formerly well known shad fisheries of the 
Delaware, Hudson and Connecticut Rivers have entirely disap- 
peared. Unless the authorities in control will exercise the power 
of keeping shores and streams in a sanitary condition the most 
desirable varieties of our edible fish will in time not be found in 
our markets. Troubles of this kind are not met with in deep 
water fisheries but on the other hand the cost of maintenance of 
the proper vessels, the duration of the voyage and the hardships 
endured by the fishermen make this form of fishing expensive. 

Salting, smoking, drying, canning and other methods of preser- 
vation have greatly increased the value of fish as a world's 



214 FOOD INDUSTRIES 

product. Modern methods of cold storage have also greatly as- 
sisted in the preservation and transportation of fish. A lower 
temperature than that used with meat has been found necessary 
fish very frequently being stored in the frozen state. While 
32 F. is sufficient to inhibit the growth of micro-organisms it will 
not hinder the action of ferments, which acting upon the tissues, 
produce disagreeable flavors and make the fish unpalatable. Fish 
which has been frozen, however, deteriorates rapidly when 
thawed and decomposition of a very undesirable nature sets in 
quickly. For this reason fish should be eaten as fresh as possible ; 
it never improves on keeping as does meat during the hanging 
process. 

Fish living in both salt and in fresh water are generally edible 
being, as far as known at the present time, equally wholesome. 
As a rule those taken from deep, clear and cold water especially 
where the bottom is rocky or sandy are preferable to those coming 
from shallow, warm water or where the bottom is muddy. Fish 
taken from water polluted with sewage are not desirable. It is 
a well known fact that some land-locked fish are affected with 
parasites at certain seasons which make them undesirable as 
food. 

Outside of the fleshy portion of fish the custom of utilizing the 
eggs of certain varieties, known as the roe prevails, in the United 
States and some European countries. This is a particularly desir- 
able product in the shad, sturgeon, mackerel and similar species. 
In the countries of Europe bordering on the Baltic it has been the 
habit for a long period to preserve the roe of the sturgeon by 
salting. When thus prepared the product is known as caviar. 

Nutritive Value. — The nutritive value of fish is chiefly due to 
the protein and fat content. In protein fish ranks nearly as high 
as meat but it is very much poorer in fat, the majority of species 
containing less than 5 per cent. High in fat are the herring, lake 
trout, mackerel and the salmon, ranging from 7.1 to 17.8 per 
cent. Many of our common varieties, however, such as the bass, 
bluefish, cod, haddock, perch and the pickerel contain less than 2 
per cent. The small fat content of the greater variety of fish is 
the main difference between meat and fish, when compared as to 



FOOD INDUSTRIES 215 

their relative nutritive value. So far as the protein is concerned, 
fish resembles meat but great differences occur in the proportion 
of fat and water, fish having water where meat has fat. Fish 
contains more gelatin yielding proteins but has less extractives. 
This accounts for the lack of flavor and the reason that fish is 
apt to pall more quickly on the appetite. The mineral matter 
consists chiefly of calcium and potassium phosphate and sodium 
chloride. 

Edible Portion. — Large proportions of fish are inedible and 
must therefore be considered as waste matter. This includes the 
skin, scales, bones, head, tail, entrails and fins. The amount 
varies greatly in different varieties, sometimes reaching as high 
as 70 per cent. Taking fish of all kinds according to Dr. Wiley, 
some 55 to 60 per cent, of the total weight is edible. 

Adulteration. — In the fish market very little adulteration occurs 
except along the line of substitution. Hake and haddock are 
sometimes sold as cod, and inferior salmon for high priced vari- 
eties. This practice of substituting one variety of fish for an- 
other occurs especially along the line of canned goods, as in the 
sardine canning industry, where the herring is frequently used. 

SHELLFISH. 

Chief among the shellfish on our market is the oyster although 
the clam, scallop, lobster, crab, shrimp, turtle and terrapin are 
used at certain seasons, when on account of their cost, they are 
usually considered great delicacies. As regards general com- 
position they strongly resemble meat and fish except that certain 
of the shellfish, such as the scallop and the oyster, contain carbo- 
hydrate in the form of glycogen. Oysters are frequently com- 
pared to milk as to their food value as both contain about the same 
amount of nutritive substances. Comparing the relative cost it 
may readily be seen that the oyster cannot be considered an 
economical food. The same may be said of the other shellfish for 
while all may be classed as valuable foods so far as protein and 
mineral matter are concerned their high cost places them among 
the delicacies rather than among our staple products. 

Oysters. — The oyster has apparently occupied a place in the 



2l6 FOOD INDUSTRIES 

diet of the human race for over 2,000 years. In very remote 
ages the Chinese cultivated artificial oyster beds, and as early as 
100 B. C. the Italians were engaged in this industry. As civiliza- 
tion advanced oyster farming spread to all the maritime coun- 
tries of the Old World and eventually to the Western Hemis- 
phere, where it has progressed to such an extent, that the annual 
crop now exceeds the total production of the rest of the world. 

In the United States the oyster is extensively raised on the 
Atlantic and Pacific Coasts and in the Gulf of Mexico, especially 
in Louisiana and Texas. Those of the greatest value come from 
Long Island Sound and adjacent waters while the largest crop in 
the world is taken from the Chesapeake Bay. The chief varieties 
are the Blue Point, Shrewsbury, Lynnhaven, Rockaway, Buzzards 
Bay, Norfolk, Stony Creek and Saddle Rock. These names for- 
merly described the source of the oyster but now are applied to 
oysters from all sources and commonly indicate the size, the Blue 
Point being the smallest and the Saddle Rock the largest. 

The prevalent opinion that oysters cannot be eaten during the 
summer has no basis. They are consumed throughout the year 
along the Atlantic Coast but it is advantageous to have a closed 
season which naturally falls during the summer months as this is 
the spawning period. During this time the hard shell clam largely 
replaces the oyster. 

Oystermen formerly depended almost entirely on natural beds 
for their product, but wherever the fishing is active and the de- 
mand great, the natural beds are rapidly becoming exhausted. 
This has led to the cultivation of artificial beds in close proximity 
to public oyster grounds. To promote the oyster industry the 
Federal Government through the Bureau of Fisheries, has co- 
operated with the States "In determining the physical and biologi- 
cal character of the oyster grounds, in surveying and plotting 
those grounds with a view to their allotment for oyster culture, 
in conducting experimental and model operations, in recommend- 
ing oyster legislation and in giving disinterested expert advice on 
the various problems that arise in the development and admin- 
istration of the oyster fishing."* 

* National Geographic Magazine, March 1913. 



FOOD INDUSTRIES -21/ 

The necessity of guarding oyster beds from sewage pollution 
has been found imperative through the tracing of typhoid epi- 
demics to the consumption of raw oysters. For a long period a 
custom has prevailed among oystermen of transferring oysters 
from salt to brackish waters for some forty-eight hours before 
shipping. The rapid absorption of fresh water gives them the 
appearance of fatness, increases their weight from 15 to 20 per- 
cent, and enhances their market value. The practice has proved 
to be unfortunate and in some states has been forbidden. Oyster 
plumping has been frequently carried on in estuaries within range 
of sewers or other sources of contamination. Where pathogenic 
bacteria exist in the water, oysters are in danger of imbibing 
disease germs with their food, and of acting as carriers of typhoid 
to the human family. Freshening also impairs the keeping quality 
and alters the flavor through loss of mineral matter by the pro- 
cess of osmosis. Chemical tests have further showed that while 
increasing the weight floating has deprived the oyster of 10 to 15 
per cent, of its nutritive value. 

Deterioration is more rapid after removal from the shell ; 
therefore while increasing the cost, it is advantageous to ship 
oysters in the shell. They are nevertheless, frequently shipped 
without the shell after having been washed and placed on ice. 
In this form they can be kept for approximately ten days. 

Clams. — There are two varieties of shell-fish commonly known 
as the clam, namely the genuine or soft-shell clam of the Long 
Island and New England coast which inhabits the muddy bottom 
of shallow bays, and the quahaug or hard-shell clam occurring in 
the sandy beaches of the same localities. Clams have as much 
nutritive value as oysters. Although not generally consumed 
in the raw condition, the soft-shell clam is considered a great 
delicacy when cooked. The quahaug is almost exclusively con- 
sumed in the raw state ; it has less nutritive value and when 
cooked lacks the flavor of the soft variety. 

Scallops. — In the cooler waters of the New York and New Eng- 
land coast there exist large quantities of a delicious shell-fish 
known as the scallop. This form consists of a delicate fluted 
shell operated by a powerful muscle which is the portion found 



2l8 FOOD INDUSTRIES 

on the market. The remainder of the scallop is exceedingly 
tender and although relished by natives will not bear transporta- 
tion. It greatly resembles the soft clam. 

Mussels. — One of the most abundant shell-fish of the Atlantic 
is the mussel which is only slightly inferior to the oyster in flavor 
and nutritive value. It has never been popular in the United 
States although it enjoys great favor in the British Isles and 
Western Europe. 

Lobsters and Crabs. — The lobster and crab are shell-fish which 
frequent the coast of the North Atlantic particularly New Eng- 
land, Nova Scotia and Newfoundland. The coast of Maine is 
the principal fishing ground of the lobster while the crab is found 
more abundantly further south. There is little difference in the 
nutritive value of the two, a slight advantage being in favor 
of the lobster. The main points are the more agreeable 
flavor of the lobster and the fact that the flesh is somewhat 
sweet due to the large proportion of glycogen. There is also 
less waste than in the crab. A curious custom exists of con- 
suming crabs during the molting season in which case they are 
known as shedder or soft-shell crabs and are considered a great 
delicacy. If freshly caught no harm results from the indulgence 
in this practice. Lobsters, crabs and clams are extensively 
canned in the United States. If the material is in a perfectly 
fresh and sanitary condition previous to canning there is no 
danger in eating the prepared product otherwise they are likely 
to result in ptomaine poisoning. The crawfish of the fresh water 
system and the Pacific Coast sometimes replaces the true lobster 
of the Atlantic. 

POULTRY. 

Varieties of market poultry include chickens, such as broilers, 
spring chickens, pullets, fowls and capons ; turkeys, known as 
chicken and full grown turkeys ; ducks, usually sold by breed, and 
geese, known as geese and green geese. The habit of eating poul- 
try was derived from the Eastern World. The Chinese who were 
one of the original consumers have long been the largest producers 
of chickens and ducks. Some of our best varieties still bear the 



FOOD INDUSTRIES 2IO, 

Asiatic name showing the type ; these include Brahma fowls and 
Pekin ducks. 

At the present time chickens are hatched largely with the use 
of incubators which give just as sturdy chicks and a more even 
yield with less loss than with the natural method. In preparing 
for the market chickens are sometimes fed for one or two weeks 
with a variety of grains mixed with buttermilk in order to pro- 
duce more fat. The custom prevails of starving for twenty- four 
hours before death so that the intestinal tract may be as nearly 
empty as possible, then killing by cutting the large artery of the 
throat or by dislocation of the neck. Freshly killed chickens are 
those which are consumed from twenty-four to forty-eight hours 
after death ; fowls can be held for a week or ten days if the 
temperature is kept low. For purposes of transportation and 
where poultry is held a freezing temperature has been found to> 
be essential. Unfortunately cold storage poultry is generally 
thawed before it is offered for sale ; it is far safer for the house- 
wife to buy such products in the frozen condition. When poul- 
try is plucked it is very much easier to maintain constant tem- 
perature conditions, feathers are also apt to gather moisture and 
dirt. The reason why game is always offered for sale in the 
unplucked condition is due to the fact that the plumage is very 
attractive and adds considerably to the appearance of the carcass. 
In some communities local authorities require that poultry should 
be stored in the drawn condition but where this custom prevails 
special care must be taken that the cut surfaces are not contamin- 
ated. On the other hand undrawn poultry can be kept in storage 
for several months without danger of intestinal contamination. 
In fact the objection to undrawn poultry seems to be purely 
ethical but in any case the duration of the storage period should 
not be excessively extended. 

The nutritive value of poultry bears a close resemblance to 
other flesh foods, ducks and geese being rather more fatty than 
chickens and turkeys. The composition of the white and dark 
meat shows a difference in the coloring matter in the dark which 
also contains a trifle more fat and considerable more extractives. 

In plucked poultry the waste is less than in any other form of 



220 FOOD INDUSTRIES 

flesh foods except cuts of lean meat. The waste is largely dimin- 
ished by the custom of utilizing the bony part and the adhering 
tissue for making extracts or soup. 

EGGS. 

Chief among the animal foods used throughout the world are 
eggs. In most countries hens' eggs are used to the largest extent 
although those of other domesticated birds, such as ducks, geese, 
turkeys and guinea-hens, are frequently found on the market. 
The use of eggs is much more common in Europe and the Orient 
than in the United States although the custom is gradually grow- 
ing in our country. As an industry egg production is on a very 
much firmer basis abroad, some countries furnishing enormous 
quantities of eggs for export to less favored localities. The 
custom here is to raise eggs on small farms near the section where 
they are to be consumed, although the industry has reached large 
proportions in Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Iowa, Kentucky, Tennessee, 
Texas, Missouri and Minnesota. The uncertain quality and con- 
dition of eggs particularly the lack of uniformity is due to a 
deficiency in co-operation and a want of satisfactory standards. 
The market is such at the present time that only a distinction is 
made between fresh eggs and those which have been held in cold 
storage. If the eggs have been properly tested before being 
placed in storage and have not been kept in this condition for too 
long a period they are more reliable than the so-called fresh eggs 
of the open market. The practice of stamping the shell is not 
necessarily a protection since there is no penalty for falsifying 
dates. 

The active life of the hen is about a year during which time 
it is supposed to produce two hundred eggs. The chief difficulty 
is that the supply is largest during the warmer period of the year 
and may be entirely suspended or erratic during the cold season. 
Improper or insufficient feeding also influences egg production. 
Experiments have been carried on to ascertain the best conditions 
for increasing and averaging the yield. Hens lay best during 
March, April, May and June, a season when the ground has 
thawed and worms and insect life begin to appear. This gives 



FOOD INDUSTRIES 221 

them naturally a supply of food. The great loss during trans- 
portation is largely due to poor packing and defective shells which 
have not sufficiently developed on account of lack of lime in the 
food. 

Physical Structure. — While the eggs of the wild birds vary 
greatly in color, tint, and plain or mottled appearance, those of the 
hen are either brown or white. Through a mistaken idea the 
difference in hens' eggs has greatly affected the market value, 
white eggs selling for a higher price in some localities, while other 
markets give the preference to the brown varieties. Examinations 
have been carried on at the New York State, Michigan and Cali- 
fornia Experiment Stations to determine their relative nutritive 
value. After much experimentation, the conclusion drawn was 
that there is no basis of fact for such popular belief. "Eggs of 
one breed whatever the color of the shells, are as nutritious as 
those of another, provided they are of the same size and the 
fowls are equally well fed." 

Composition of the Shell. — The shell or protective coating of the 
egg is very largely composed of mineral matter. According to 
Dr. Langworthy 93.7 per cent, is calcium carbonate while mag- 
nesium carbonate and calcium phosphate also appear in small 
amounts. Organic matter is present only to the extent of 4.2 
per cent. 

When viewed through a magnifying glass the shell is shown 
to be very porous in its nature. This allows the evaporation of 
water and results in the gradual loss in weight of the egg. The 
decrease in specific gravity therefore furnishes a very satisfac- 
tory means of judging the freshness of an egg. Brine may be 
prepared by dissolving 2 ounces of salt in 1 pint of water. A 
perfectly fresh egg will sink to the bottom in this solution. Ac- 
cording to the experiments of Siebel, "An egg one day old will 
sink below the surface, but not to the bottom, when over three 
days old it will float on the surface, the amount of shell exposed 
increasing with the age." 

In marketing eggs, the freshness is usually told by a process 
called "candling." In a dark room, an egg is held between the 
eye and an artificial light; a fresh egg appears unclouded, homo- 



222 FOOD INDUSTRIES 

geneous and translucent; a stale egg is cloudy and frequently 
contains dark spots ; a rotten egg appears dark colored. A sim- 
ple housewife's test may also be made by shaking an egg held 
near the ear. The contents of the egg should not move. If a 
slight movement can be detected it is somewhat stale ; if it 
rattles the egg is spoiled. 

Methods of Preservation. — The porous condition of the shell 
is to a great extent responsible for the^ rapid deterioration of eggs. 
Bacteria can readily enter and bring about such changes as to 
make the article unfit for human consumption in a comparatively 
short time. 

In early days eggs were always marketed near the source of 
supply but modern conditions frequently require the transporta- 
tion for long distances. On account of hens laying more plenti- 
fully in the spring it is also necessary, in order to secure an even 
distribution throughout the year, to store eggs for use during the 
fall and winter months. These facts have led to the study of the 
best methods of preservation. Cold storage has been found most 
effective a temperature near the freezing point being usually 
employed. 

In order to prevent bacteria from entering, eggs are sometimes 
coated with a non-porous substance. The most efficient of these 
has been found to be a 10 per cent, solution of sodium silicate 
(water-glass). The egg should be carefully wiped with a damp 
cloth, and either coated or placed in a jar containing the water- 
glass as quickly after it has been laid as possible. 

Eggs may also be preserved by the process of drying. Desic- 
cation may be accomplished by spreading the egg in a thin film 
on a dry surface, or by passing the product under pressure 
through drying chambers. Where fresh eggs have been used, 
and where the process of manufacture is such as to make the 
product palatable and care has been given to the storage, such 
a product is wholesome and may be held for a reasonable length 
of time. Dried eggs are used largely by bakers, in camps and 
on long expeditions where fresh eggs are not available. 

Composition of an Egg'. — As the contents of an egg are in- 
tended by nature to furnish the sole nutrition of the young chick 



FOOD INDUSTRIES 



223 



during the process of development, we may expect to find 
among its constituents, all the elements required for building pur-, 
poses. In this way it bears a strong resemblance to milk both 
being a perfect food for the animal for which it is intended. 
Water, protein, fat and mineral matter are well represented, while 
carbohydrate is present only in a small amount. The nutritive 
parts of the white are chiefly protein, largely in the form of al- 
bumins, and a small amount of mineral matter. Only traces of 
fat are present. The yolk is rich in fat, protein and mineral mat- 
ter. The fat occurs in the form of an emulsion, held in suspen- 
sion by vitellin, a phosphoprotein resembling the caseinogen of 
milk. Eggs are also rich in sulphur, phosphorus and such ele- 
ments as calcium, magnesium, potassium and iron in the form of 
salts. Another important food constituent present in the yolk is 
lecithin a compound which furnishes the body with phosphorus 
in a form which can be readily assimilated. The composition of 
the white and yolk given by Langworthy is as follows : 



Water 

Protein 

Fat 

Carbohydrate 




49-5 
15-7 
33-3 



CHAPTER XVI. 



THE PACKING HOUSE. 

Historical.- — The packing industry as it exists to-day was 
founded about thirty years ago, although packing in a very prim- 
itive way, has been practiced since the middle of the 18th cen- 
tury. Starting in the eastern United States, it spread westward 
and in time concentrated in centers near the source of supply 
of the raw material, thus saving the cost of freight on the live 
animal from the ranch to the market. So, naturally, the important 
commercial and railroad cities nearest the large grazing areas of 
the west and southwest Chicago, Kansas City, St. Louis, Omaha, 
St. Joseph, Indianapolis, Fort Worth and others have become the 
largest packing house centers. Their proximity to the corn belt 
and their water or rail shipping facilities have also been large 
factors in the development of the packing industry. 

The growth of this business has been very rapid. Although 
of comparatively recent origin it now ranks as one of the lead- 
ing industries of the United States. It is said to be the largest 
and most important industry which is strictly American in its 
conception and development. From the States it is rapidly 
spreading to most of the new countries of the world. 

Growth and Breadth of the Industry. — Important factors lead- 
ing to the rapid growth of the packing business have been arti- 
ficial refrigeration, concentration and the utilization of by-pro- 
ducts. 

In former times packing could only be carried on during the 
winter months, as meat cannot be kept in good condition for any 
length of time after slaughtering, unless the temperature is kept 
low. The introduction of artificial refrigeration has now made 
it possible to carry on the business throughout the year. Not 
only has refrigeration become essential in the packing house, but 
its use during transportation has regulated the supply of meat at 
all seasons. 

Where animals were driven or shipped to the place of consump- 
tion and slaughtered for local demand, the numbers were neces- 



FOOD INDUSTRIES 225 

sarily very small and little thought was given to the by-products. 
The fresh beef, the hide, the horns and the tallow were the only 
products used; the remainder was thrown away. This involved 
a great waste of valuable material. When the packing business 
became concentrated the large amount of waste matter attracted 
attention. This resulted in the conversion of animal products 
that were not fitted for food or for manufacturing purposes into 
fertilizing material. The fertilizer department once established 
soon led to the study of the utilization of all by-products. As- 
sisted by Applied Chemistry, means were in time discovered by 
which every available part of the animal could be converted into 
a marketable product. The value of using waste matter which 
formerly had been an expense to remove is enormous. It has 
been greatly responsible for the rapid growth and development 
of the industry. 

The large modern packing houses consist of many departments, 
where frequently the by-products are elaborated to the finished 
articles, so that they go direct to the consumer from the packer; 
thus we find the high grades of fat being manufactured into 
butterine in one department, lower grades into soap in another 
department. The meat canning industry and the manufacture 
of products, such as beef-extracts, pepsin, sausages, gelatin, glue, 
lard, sheep skins, feathers and many articles too numerous to 
mention, are now frequently part of the packing industry. 

Processes in the Packing House. — Inspection and Slaughtering. 
On the arrival of cattle, sheep or swine at the stockyards, an 
inspection is made by a representative of the government and 
where pathogenic conditions are suspected, the animal is seg- 
regated and handled separately. A post-mortem inspection is 
also made on all animals and on all parts of animals, to be utilized 
as food (Fig. 54). 

As a rule animals found to be healthy are not slaughtered until 
the day after their arrival at the packing house, thus avoid- 
ing any abnormal conditions as over excitement and fatigue. 
After slaughtering they are bled and the hide, head, feet and 
internal organs are removed. They are then scrubbed and 
washed in each part, after which they are removed to the cooler, 
15 



226 FOOD INDUSTRIES 

where they hang until ready for shipment or until they are sent 
to the cutting room for curing, sausage making or canning. 

Beef are hung far enough apart to admit free circulation of 
air and the temperature is dropped as quickly as possible to 
40°-45° F. where it is maintained for twelve hours, after which 
it is gradually dropped to 34° -35 F. The temperature is seldom 
allowed to fall to the freezing point. 



Fig. 54. — Beef Viscera Inspection. (Courtesy of Armour & Co., Chicago, 111.) 

Hides, Pelts and Bristles. — As the hide of beef constitutes the 
most valuable by-product, great care is given to the handling 
and curing, preparatory to delivery to the tanner. It is removed 
from the freshly killed animals by skilful workmen, freed from 
adhering flesh and fat and quickly cooled. A combination of 
fine salt and rock salt which has been crushed and screened, is 



FOOD INDUSTRIES 227 

spread over each hide and they are piled one above the other. 
During the curing process which lasts for 25-30 days, more or 
less shrinkage takes place, after which the excess of salt is re- 
moved and they are prepared for shipment. 

The pelts of sheep are also removed after slaughter. When 
not disposed of while fresh, they are cured by salting and some- 
times treated so that the wool can be easily removed from the 
skin. 

After the slaughter and scalding of swine, the bristles are taken 
from the back and hams and are cured first by drying, either in 
the sun or with artificial heat and then by salting. They are 
used for the manufacture of cheap brushes. At the present 
time the best bristles are being obtained from Russia and China. 

Fat. — The second important by-product is fat, which is ex- 
tensively used for the manufacture of edible products and many 
useful articles. From the bullock three grades of fat are ob- 
tained. The first grade yields oleo stock from which by further 
treatment, oleo oil and stearin are obtained. The latter prod- 
uct is largely used in the preparation of compound lard. Oleo 
stock is frequently called butter-fat as oleo oil is one of the chief 
constituents of butterine. Oleo oil may be sent to a separate de- 
partment of the packing house to be made into artificial butter, 
or as raw material, it may be sold to the manufacturer of butter- 
ine. For this purpose, large quantities are shipped abroad, the 
greater part going to Holland from which place it is distributed 
to other European countries. 

A high grade of fat may also be rendered for edible tallow. 
This was the type fat used originally in the manufacture of oleo- 
margarine. For the manufacture of artificial butter see Chapter 
XIV. A second grade of fat is rendered for ordinary tallow 
which may be further separated into tallow oil and tallow stearin. 
Several grades of tallow are known. They may be used in soap 
making, candle manufacture and in the preparation of glycerin, 
oleic and stearic acids. Tallow may be utilized for lubricating 
purposes, being generally compounded with other material. 

From the sheep, tallow may also be obtained. It is hard and 
white in appearance and is known as mutton tallow. 



228 



FOOD INDUSTRIES 



One of the most important factors in the packing house is the 
rendering of the fat from hogs. Several grades prepared by 
different processes are placed upon the market, known as kettle 
rendered lard, prime steam lard, refined lard and compound lard. 
The last named product is a substitute for lard and consists 
largely of cotton-seed oil, oleo stearin and tallow. Kettle-ren- 
dered lard is the highest grade of household lard. It is generally 




Fig- 55- —Lard Boiling. (Courtesy of Armour & Co., Chicago. 111.) 



supposed to be made entirely from leaf lard, but only two-thirds 
leaf lard is used as a rule, the remaining amount being fat taken 
from the back. Neutral lard is made principally from leaf lard 
but by a more complex process (Fig. 55). 

The Feet. — From the feet of slaughtered animals a valuable 
oil known as neats-foot oil may be obtained. The bones are 
sawed, separated from the hoofs,- washed to free them from 
blood and subjected to live steam. During this process, the bones 



FOOD INDUSTRIES 229 

fall apart and the oil separates. The bones may be ground into 
meal and the liquid containing dissolved protein may be utilized 
for the manufacture of glue. The oil which is drawn off is 
refined and used largely for leather dressing. 

Bone Products. — From the bones of the head and feet many 
useful products may be obtained. One of the most valuable is 
bone-black, which is largely used in the industries for decoloriz- 
ing, as in the bleaching of sugar, glucose and similar products. 
A black pigment may be secured also, and used as a pigment for 
paints and shoe blackings. Some bones are ground and used for 
fertilizing purposes while others are worked up into knife handles, 
buttons, combs, fans and many similar articles. 

Tankage. — Tankage is the name given to the residue which 
remains in the tanks where meat scraps have been rendered to 
extract the fat. In former years it was always considered waste 
material and was thrown away. The operation consists in 
boiling down the meat scraps, under pressure in a closed tank 
or "digester," for several hours. After all the parts are thor- 
oughly disintegrated from the effect of the high temperature, the 
fatty matter separates from the lean and can be withdrawn 
through outlet pipes and by the process of skimming. The ma- 
terial which remains in the vats is passed through filter cloth 
and pressed, until most of the water and any remaining fat 
are removed. It is then dried, screened, and used as fertilizer 
base. The commercial value depends on the amount of ammonia 
and bone-phosphate which it contains. As the tank water is very 
rich in material which contains ammonia, it is concentrated to a 
syrupy consistency in a vacuum pan, mixed with copperas and 
dried. It is known as "concentrated tankage" and is used for 
mixing with low grade tankage to increase the percentage of 
ammonia. 

Blood. — The blood which flows from the slaughtered animals 
is conducted through drains to large vats or receptacles, care 
being given to keep it free from refuse, manure, water and 
other foreign matter. It is then cooked by live steam until 
the albumin has coagulated after which it is pressed and dried. 
Dried albumin may be ground and screened if desired. Albumin 
is used extensively as a fertilizer. In the textilte industry un- 



23O FOOD INDUSTRIES 

coagulated albumin is used in setting the color permanently in 
such material as gingham. The fresh drained blood is some- 
times used in beet sugar refining as a clarifying agent ; it is then 
known as "sugar house albumin." 

Mixing Fertilisers. — To make a complete fertilizer phosphoric 
acid, ammonia and potash must all be present. As only ammonia 
and phosphorus compounds are obtained from bones, tankage 
and blood, it is necessary to add a potassium salt, such as potas- 
sium chloride or sulphate. According to need they are mixed 
in different proportions and are thoroughly incorporated with a 
filler as earth or ashes which acts as a diluent, the fertilizer 
when used alone being too strong for plant life. 

Glue and Gelatin. — Glue and gelatin can be made from many 
by-products of the packing industry. The chief sources are the 
liquids in which have been boiled cattle and sheep's heads, feet, 
bones, sinews, hide trimmings, calves' heads and pigs'- feet. Many 
grades may be obtained from fine white gelatin to a low grade 
dark appearing glue, according to the part of the animal used, 
the condition of the raw material and the care in manufacture. 
In order to produce a high grade product, careful attention 'must 
be given to the raw material in order that decomposition does 
not set in. Only that which is in a sound, sweet condition should 
be utilized. It is also essential that a low temperature be used 
in concentrating the glue liquor, so that scorching and other 
undesirable changes may not take place. This is accomplished by 
evaporating the liquid, to the desired density in a vacuum pan 
from which it is clarified, chilled and run into molds. It is then 
cut into layers and dried in an oven. 

In order to dissolve the mineral matter, bones are frequently 
leached with an acid. By allowing them to remain in dilute 
hydrochloric (2 Be.) or phosphoric (6° Be.) for three or four 
weeks, the bones become soft and spongy. They are then freed 
from the acid by careful washing, after which they are converted 
into gelatin. 

Bleaching the bones before cooking the glue liquid is practiced 
by many manufacturers. Sulphur dioxide is most frequently 
used, although other bleaching agents may be employed, such as 



FOOD INDUSTRIES 23 1 

zinc sulphate or chloride and peroxide of hydrogen. In addition 
to bleaching these agents act as preservatives thus preventing 
decomposition from setting in. Formaldehyde is also used in 
small quantities as a preservative. 

Canning of Meat, Beef Extracts, Sausages, etc. — As a rule 
the canning of meat is carried on as a separate industry. See 
Chapter XX. It is, however, one of the side issues that is fre- 
quently found in the packing house, being established with the 
view of saving a large proportion of meat that would otherwise 
be wasted, or would be sold at a very low price. In this way 
many of the cheaper cuts of meat, which are nourishing and 
healthy, can be utilized. The preservation of meat by hermet- 
ically sealing has led to still another department within the 
packing house. In the soaking and cooking of meat part of the 
water-soluble constituents are dissolved. By concentration in a 
vacuum pan, these waste liquors together with the bone liquid, 
may be converted into beef extracts. Fresh meat is rarely used 
for this purpose among packers, consequently the cost of pre- 
paring beef extracts by them is very small. For manufacturing 
processes, see Chapter XV. 

In the sausage department the packer finds another way of 
disposing of those portions of meat which are nutritious but not 
palatable in their original condition. Sausages, bologna, frank- 
furts, scrapple and similar products are prepared after various 
formulae placed upon the market. Besides meat from differ- 
ent parts of the beef and pork, such products may contain corn 
flour, cracker meal, boiled potatoes, starches and dextrins. These 
are frequently spoken of as "fillers" and serve to prevent shrink- 
age in bulk under the influence of heat. A great variety of 
flavoring agents are added, sugar, salt, white or red pepper, 
cinnamon, mace, allspice, cloves, coriander, carraway seeds, mar- 
joram and onions or garlic. Saltpetre and coloring matter, con- 
sisting of dyes of various kinds, assist in giving a better appear- 
ance. The use of borax and boracic acid for purposes of pres- 
ervation is still a common practice. 

The manufacture of animal casings from the round or small 
guts, middle or large intestines and bladders, of cattle, sheep 



232 FOOD INDUSTRIES 

and hogs, furnish another example of the utilization of material 
entirely lost until the establishment of the modern packing house. 
In order to supply the demand artificial casings are prepared 
from cellulose to take the place of animal casings. To improve 
the appearance of casings, to insure against shrinkage and to 
prevent molding, varnish is sometimes used. It is prepared from 
shellac, boracic acid, ammonia and water. 

There is probably more chance for deception in the manufac- 
ture of these products than in any other form of animal food 
found on the market. When properly prepared they are highly 
prized as food products. The frequent use, however, of such 
material as borax, boracic acid, sulphite of soda, undesirable 
colorings and excessive quantities of filler, is making the inspec- 
tion of factories the only safeguard that the consumer has for 
protection against the adulteration of these products. 

Minor Packing House Products. — In connection with the pack- 
ing industry, many other branches may be found, such as the 
manufacture of chipped dried beef, the curing and smoking of 
tongues and hams, and the preparation of pharmaceutical prod- 
ucts from the various organs of slaughtered animals. From the 
mucous membrane of the stomach of hogs, pepsin is made and 
a similar ferment known as pancreatin may be obtained from 
the pancreas or sweetbreads of animals. 

In a like manner, from the bullock may be extracted cardine 
from the heart, medulline from the spinal cord, musculine from 
the muscular tissues and cerebrine from the brain. The thyroid 
glands of the sheep and the bullocks yield thyroidine. . It is 
claimed that these extracts from animals are beneficial in the 
treatment of diseases of human organs similar to those from 
which the extracts are prepared. 



CHAPTER XVII. 



MILK. 




Fig. 56.— Burnside Farm, N. Y. 

Source. — Milk is a white opaque fluid which is secreted by the 
lacteal glands of the female of all animals, which belong to the 
mammalian class. It is intended by nature to supply nourish- 
ment to the young, until such a time as it is able to take food 
similar to that utilized by the parents. 

In different parts of the world various animals are bred for 
the purpose of producing milk for the use of mankind. Prob- 
ably the goat was one of the first animals to supply milk to the 
human family, and in the rough, hilly districts of Europe, espe- 
cially in the Swiss Alps, it is still very common. The milk of the 
buffalo, the camel, the mare and the reindeer is frequently used, 
while in parts of Europe the ewe has produced much milk for the 
manufacture of cheese. 

History does not tell us how the cow came to be developed 
as a producer of milk, but in most civilized countries where the 
climatic conditions permit, cow's milk is the sole source of supply. 
It is not more desirable for human food than the milk of other 
animals, but in development the cow has shown herself to be 
able to give the best return for a given amount of care and 
feeding:. 



234 FOOD INDUSTRIES 

Composition. — Chemically milk is composed of all the essentials 
necessary to sustain life for a long- period and is therefore fre- 
quently spoken of as a perfect food. It can only be regarded in 
this light, however, when utilized by the type of animal for 
which it is intended. 

The composition varies in different animals, even in animals 
of the same species, but the difference is rather in the relative 
proportion of the various constituents, than in the general prop- 
erties and composition of the ingredients themselves. The fol- 
lowing figures will give a general idea of the composition of 
cow's milk, although a great variation may occur according to 
the breed, age of cow, period of lactation, amount and character 
of the food, etc. 

Per cent. 

Water 87.2 

Total solids 12.8 

Fat 3.6 

Carbohydrate 4.9 

Protein 3.3 

Mineral matter 0.7 

Water is the largest constituent of the milk containing in solu- 
tion, semi-solution or in suspension, the remaining ingredients 
which are known as the total solids. Of these total solids fat is 
commercially the most important as it is the source of butter 
and to a great extent cheese. The amount differs more than any 
other constituent, being low in the Holstein and relatively high 
in the Jersey and Guernsey. The average should not fall below 
3 per cent, and except in very rich milk, it will not exceed 5 per 
cent. 

Fat occurs in milk as an emulsion suspended in the milk 
serum in the form of globules. On account of their specific 
gravity these globules rise more or less readily to the top, when 
milk is allowed to remain at rest, and are then known as cream 
or top milk. 

Chemically the fat which is known as butter-fat exists in two 
forms, non-volatile and volatile. The non-volatile or insoluble 
fats make up about 90 per cent, of the total amount, and consist 



FOOD INDUSTRIES 235 

of a number of fats of which palmitin, olein and stearin are the 
most important. The characteristic taste and odor of milk and 
butter are largely due to the existence of certain volatile fats, 
butyrin, caprin, caproin and caprilin which constitute the re- 
maining 10 per cent. Of these butyrin is the most important. 
It occurs in the largest proportion and is the fat which on de- 
composing yields butyric acid, readily detected in rancid butter. 

The carbohydrate in milk is known as lactose or milk sugar. 
It belongs to the disaccharid group as do sucrose and maltose, 
and is similar so far as its ultimate composition is concerned. 
The most marked difference is solubility; sucrose and maltose 
are very readily soluble in water while lactose dissolves with 
difficulty. Milk sugar therefore does not possess the sweeten- 
ing power of the other disaccharids and is not apt to pall upon 
the taste so rapidly. 

Lactose does not readily yield to yeast fermentation, but under 
the influence of certain bacteria found in all normal milk, it 
undergoes partial decomposition yielding lactic acid according 
to the following formulas : 

C w H M O n . H 2 — 4 CH 3 CHOH COOH. 

This change begins in the milk as a rule almost immediately 
after it is drawn from the cow and continues until 0.9 of 1 per 
cent, is formed, when further decomposition is checked by the 
lactic acid. 

The chief protein of milk is caseinogen which exists in an 
extremely fine colloidal state in intimate contact with calcium 
phosphate. Caseinogen will not coagulate on heating, but when 
subjected to an acid which combines readily with the calcium, it 
will precipitate in the form of a curd. It is very important com- 
mercially as it is one of the chief constituents of cheese. Albumin 
and globulin also occur in solution in milk but in relatively small 
amounts, approximately 0.5 of 1 per cent, of the total protein. 
They are essentially the same in chemical composition as the 
albumin and globulin found in blood and egg. 

Mineral matter is present in a relatively large amount, 0.7 of 
1 per cent, in cow's milk and is utilized mainly for building pur- 
poses. Small amounts of a variety of salts occur — phosphate 



236 FOOD INDUSTRIES 

of lime and potash, chlorides and sulphates of sodium and potas- 
sium, with very small amounts of iron and magnesium. Human 
milk contains much less inorganic matter, approximately 0.2 
per cent, being present. It is frequently necessary therefore in 
infant feeding to modify milk so it will more closely resemble 
mother's milk. 

Milk contains several other constituents occurring in minute 
quantities. Lime occurs in combination with citric acid in the 
form of a salt known as citrate of lime. It is also rich in various 
enzymes which assist in the digestion of the protein, fat and milk 
sugar. For a short period after it has been drawn bactericidal 
bodies are present. The characteristic color of the fluid is largely 
due to lactochrome which occurs in varying amounts, and is 
generally supposed to be intimately associated with the palmitin 
IMPORTANCE OF THE MILK SUPPLY. 

Of all our standard articles of food none have received as 
much attention as the production and handling of milk. The 
reason for this may readily be seen for it has been found that 
milk is more apt to be dangerous to health than any common 
food product. It deteriorates very rapidly and as it is usually 
taken in the raw state, no protection is afforded the consumer 
through the process of cooking. The fact that it forms the sole 
diet of the human being at an immature age makes this problem 
a very serious one. Should there be any contamination, the 
child would be liable to take it when least able to cope with a 
disease. 

Besides the chemical compounds previously considered, milk 
contains a large number of bacteria which gain access to it after 
it is secreted. Unfortunately the warmth of the milk, the fluid 
condition and the composition make it a most favorable medium 
for the growth of these micro-organisms. They reproduce very 
rapidly and unless precautions are taken to inhibit their increase, 
the number becomes enormously large in a comparatively short 
time (Figs. 57-58). Through their action, changes begin to 
take place in the milk constituents and in time decomposition 
advances so far, that the milk is no longer fit for consumption. 



Bac t e ri alTe sts 

OF 

Creamery Milk 



i 



FARMER'S MILK 

DELIVERED 
TO CREAMERY 



SAME MILK AFTER 
PASTEURIZING lMIN. 
AT 155' f. 



SAME MILK. AFTER 

5 MINUTES IN 
CREAMERY Mil K CANS 



WATER IN WHICH 
MILK CANS RECEIVE 
flNAL RINSING 



MILK FROM SAME 

CANS AFTER ARRIVAL 

IN NEW YORK CIT Y 

NEXT MORNING 






5,000,000 

BACTERIA 
PER CC 



6700 

BACTERIA 
PER CC 



560.000 

BACTERIA 
PER CC. 



1.270.000 

BACTERIA 
PER CC 



90.000.000 

BACTERIA 
PER CUBIC 
CENTIMETER 



Careless Handling 



NVMILK COMMIT TEE 



Bacteria Counts Tell the Story of Unsanitary Conditions 

Fig- 57- 



Bac t e hi alTe sts 

OF 

Creamery Milk 



i 



FARMER'S MILK 
DELIVERED 
TO CREAMERY 



same milk after 
pasteurizing 30 min. 

AT U5* F 



SAME MILK AFTER 

3 MINUTES IN 

CREAMERY BOTTLES I 



WATER IN WHICH 

BOTTLES RECEIVE 

FINAL RINSING 



MILK FROM SAME 
BOTTLES AFTER 
ARRIVAL IN N.Y. CITY 
NEXT MORNING 



28,000 

BACTERIA 
PER C.C. 



3,000 

BACTERIA 
PER C.C. 



3.000 

BACTERIA 
PER C.C. 



NO 
BACTERIA 



5,000 

BACTERIA 

PER CUBIC 

CENTIMETER 



Careful Handling 



NYMILK COMMirrCC 



Bacteria Counts Tell the Story op Sanitary Conditions 

Fig. 58. 



FOOD INDUSTRIES 239 

Diseases from Milk. — The greater number of the germs in milk 
are harmless excepting the germs of specific diseases, such as 
tuberculosis, typhoid, scarlet fever, diphtheria and septic sore 
throat. The most dreaded disease is that of tuberculosis. The 
bacilli may come directly from the cow affected with bovine 
tuberculosis, in which case there is a possibility of large numbers 
being present in the milk when it is drawn from the teats. Such 
milk when mixed with that drawn from other cows may con- 
taminate the supply from the entire herd. Expert examination 
has proved that the disease is as prevalent among cows as it is 
in the human family especially when the animal has been kept 
under bad hygienic conditions. Rosenau states* "The fact that 
bovine tuberculosis is frequently fatal, especially in children, 
may be divined from the fact that fifteen per cent, of the fatal 
cases of tuberculosis in children under five years of age that have 
been studied, were due to the bovine type of bacillus" and "from 
five to seven per cent, of all human tuberculosis is ascribed to 
infection with the bovine bacillus." This shows the importance 
of the care which should be given tO the milch cow and the 
necessity of making the tuberculin test from time to time. 

Milk may also be contaminated from persons having pulmonary- 
tuberculosis or through the contaminated clothing or unsanitary 
habits of the milker. It is believed that epidemics of diphtheria 
and scarlet fever have been caused by the milk supply, probably 
through secondary infection. The great importance of the 
health and cleanliness of the milker and his family is again 
shown in typhoid, since the cow does not have that disease. An 
impure water supply in which milking utensils are washed has 
frequently been the cause of the spread of typhoid. For this 
reason no water which is not above suspicion should be used 
about the dairy, for either drinking or washing purposes. In 
recent years pathogenic streptococci causing sore throat have 
been traced to infected milk. 

Cholera infantum is believed by some authorities to be due to 
the abnormal increase of bacteria of filth rather than to any one 
species of micro-organism. That it is due to milk bacteria has 

* Rosenau — The Milk Question, p. 100. 



24O FOOD INDUSTRIES 

been proved by the fa'ct that the trouble occurs in greatest abun- 
dance at the season of the year when milk bacteria are most 
numerous, that it is chiefly confined to infants fed upon cow's 
milk and that the disease is greatly reduced when care is given 
to supply pure milk. 

Necessity for Cleanliness. — Milk easily becomes contaminated, 
since it is a favorite medium for the development of bacteria 
and must frequently be carried long distances. Hence cleanli- 
ness is an absolute necessity in the production and handling 
of our milk supply. Means should also be taken to prevent the 
growth of micro-organisms, for even when produced under sani- 
tary conditions, bacteria in small numbers are always present. 
Their development may be inhibited by dropping the tempera- 
ture immediately after milking to 50 F. and maintaining this 
temperature until the milk is delivered. The importance of per- 
fect cleanliness and low temperature cannot be over-estimated. 

Safeguarding the Milk Supply. — To safeguard the supply laws 
have been passed by the city and state governments, which while 
differing in detail, contain the same general rules. As regards 
composition milk must not contain more than 87-88 per cent, 
water and should contain 12-13 P er cent, total solids of which 
3 per cent, should be fat. It must be guarded from producer to 
consumer, by surrounding it with sanitary conditions and a 
temperature sufficiently low to prevent rapid growth of micro- 
organisms. The addition of borax, boracic acid, salicylic acid, 
formaldehyde or other preservative is forbidden. Some cities 
also have a law in regard to the bacterial count but this has been 
found impracticable in large communities. 

Because of its wide usage as a food milk is more closely 
supervised than other articles in the diet. It is inspected at the 
farm, at creameries, during transportation, at receiving stations 
and in distributing centers. Regulations are now more or less 
enforced affecting surroundings where milk is produced. The 
water supply must be above suspicion. The utensils should be 
heavily tinned and seamless. They should be subjected each day 
to a thorough washing and if possible to live steam or exposure 
to sunlight. The stables should be light, well ventilated and fre- 



FOOD INDUSTRIES 24I 

quently whitewashed. No utensils, feed or other animals should 
be kept in the stables. Bedding and manure must be daily 
removed. The cow should be healthy and kept as clean as pos- 
sible. The milker and dairyman's family should be free from 
contagious disease. The milk should be drawn through a small 
mouthed sanitary milk pail and cooled immediately. During the 
journey to the consumer milk should be kept out of contact with 
air and should be iced. Sanitary conditions should also prevail 
where it is distributed. 

Although the state may control more or less the supply of 
milk from the producer to the consumer, once in the hands of 
the housekeeper, the law is powerless to control the handling of 
milk. Too frequently through ignorance or utter carelessness, 
milk which has been carefully handled by farmer and distributor 
is ruined by the housewife. It is as much her duty to see that 
milk is guarded carefully as it is of those who have handled it 
before her. The following hints to housekeepers have been con- 
tributed by some of the students of Teachers College : Buy only 
for daily use ; buy bottled milk whenever possible ; when milk must 
be bought from an open can, use a covered receptacle to put it in, 
such as a glass fruit jar; do not transfer bottled milk to another 
receptacle ; on receiving wash the top and outside of the bottle 
thoroughly and place at once near the ice in the ice box; do not 
mix old and new milk; since milk absorbs odors do not put 
it near strong smelling food ; keep well covered at all times ; when 
the bottle is empty rinse with cold water, wash thoroughly with 
hot water and set to drain away from dust; do not use milk 
bottles for any other purpose; if there is a contagious disease in 
the family until the danger is over, place a clean covered con- 
tainer where the milkman may pour the contents of the milk 
bottle which he is delivering into the container, or keep all bottles 
delivered during the period of illness before returning, at which 
time they should be thoroughly sterilized ; general rule — keep 
milk cold and free from dirt. 

Our Duty to the Producer. — As the study of the milk problem 
advances more and more has been required of the producer. 
The law now demands that cows must be in a healthy condition, 
16 



242 FOOD INDUSTRIES 

that old barns and surroundings must be cleaned or new barns 
built, stables must be whitewashed, the water supply must be 
examined, new utensils must be bought and more care must be 
given to cleanliness, which means more labor at an additional 
cost. These requirements have greatly added to the cost of the 
production of milk, and the farmer can no longer supply milk 
at a profit for the same price as when unsanitary conditions pre- 
vailed. The advance in price should therefore be cheerfully 
borne by the consumer who is receiving a far better product 
to-day than in years gone by. 

Testing of Milk. — Milk is usually tested by the lactometer 
which registers the specific gravity, and by the Babcock test which 
gives the percentage of fat and also assists in the detection of 
formaldehyde. The estimate of the amount of water and total 
solids is made together with the bacterial count. For further 
information in regard to these tests see a standard work on milk 
as Milk and Its Products by Wing, The Production and Handling 
of Clean Milk by Winslow, Harrington's Practical Hygiene, or 
Van Slyke's Methods of Testing Milk and Milk Products. 

Sterilization. — Even with ordinary care milk contains a large 
number of bacteria which multiply rapidly. As previously seen 
they may be a harmless type or those of specific diseases. These 
troubles have led to the treatment of milk by heat the oldest 
method being that of sterilization. 

As sterilization means the destruction of all micro-organisms, 
it is necessary either to hold milk at a temperature of 248 F. for 
15 minutes or to raise it to the boiling temperature on three suc- 
cessive days. This insures not only the destruction of bacteria 
but spores of a highly resistant type and renders the milk practi- 
cally sterile. If air be excluded such milk can be held indefi- 
nitely. While undoubtedly this is the most effective method of 
protecting milk against bacterial decomposition, it unfortunately 
so alters the composition as to make it more difficult to digest. 
This has proved so serious an objection that sterilization has 
been practically abandoned in America, and either pasteuriza- 
tion or the use of clean raw milk has taken its place. 



FOOD INDUSTRIES 



243 




A B C 

Fig- 59.— Pasteurization of Milk. The milk passes from the receiving tank (A) through 
the clarifiers (B) to the pastuerizer (C) where it is heated to 145 F. It is then con- 
ducted to the holding tanks (Fig. 60). (Courtesy of the Sheffeld-Farms-Slawson- 
Decker Co.) 





"WHan*^ . S: ;:--•■- 








I 


hm 1 




/ 


' : >:r*-'- ■'';:' 


: I ! !_ 


. 


■ _ 


■ • 


W~r ' •*'" 


..." ^*^ '1 






' 


- ; '"_T r ~# [ 




J' 



Fig. 60.— Holding Tanks. Milk heated to 145 F. is conducted successively to four 
holding tanks where it is held for fifteen minutes in each tank. At a temperature 
of about 142 F. it passes back through the pasteurizers and is rapidly cooled. 
(Courtesy of the Sheffield-Farms-Slawson-Decker Co.) 



244 



FOOD INDUSTRIES 




Fig. 6 1. —Milk Coolers. (Courtesy, of the Sheffield-Farms-Slawson-Decker Co.) 




Fig. 62. -Milk Bottling Machine. (Courtesy of the Sheffield-Farms-Slawson-Decker Co.) 



FOOD INDUSTRIES 245 

Pasteurization. — The term pasteurization means the heating- of 
milk below the boiling point, from 140 to 160 F., followed by 
rapid cooling (Figs. 59-62). This method was named from Pas- 
teur who suggested its use in 1864 for the preservation of beer 
and wine. It was not, however, until 1886 that the process was 
applied to milk. It differs from sterilization mainly in the degree 
of heat to which bacteria are subjected. All micro-organisms 
are not destroyed by this method so pasteurized milk will in time 
decompose. It has been found, nevertheless, that from 95 to 98 
per cent, of bacterial life and practically all of disease bacteria 
have been rendered harmless, so milk thus treated can be kept 
from souring from twelve to twenty-four hours longer. If milk 
has been kept for a period before pasteurization, poisons may 
have been formed in it which heat will not destroy. It is there- 
fore absolutely essential that only clean, fresh milk should be 
pasteurized. The process can in no way take the place of clean- 
liness and should never be used to atone for unsanitary methods 
in the production and handling of the milk supply. 

If a low temperature has been used pasteurizing does not 
injure milk so far as its nutritive value is concerned and it af- 
fords a certain protection against such diseases as tuberculosis 
and typhoid which have been previously discussed. 

Certified Milk. — The term is intended to signify that the milk 
is certified as to its quality and wholesomeness by a medical 
milk commission. While pasteurization properly carried out has 
greatly assisted in safeguarding the milk supply of large cities, 
where enormous quantities must frequently be carried long dis- 
tances, it is by no means ideal. It frequently means a purified 
rather than a pure milk. This has proved satisfactory for or- 
dinary household purposes and for adults, but in infant feeding 
nothing can take the place of pure raw milk produced under 
ideal conditions. A standard of excellence has been fixed by 
medical commissions and milk which can satisfy these require- 
ments is sold under the name of certified or guaranteed milk. 
The bacterial count must be low, and it must possess the other 
characteristics of pure wholesome milk. This can only be se- 
cured by perfect cleanliness in regard to the dairy methods, 



246 FOOD INDUSTRIES 

care of the cow, and health of the milker. To comply with 
sanitary regulations means an excess cost to the producer, so 
certified milk may be sold at a higher price. Such milk is fre- 
quently sold under the special name of the dairy, as Walker- 
Gordon milk. 

Modified Milk. — As the composition of cow's milk differs from 
that of human milk, being higher in protein and mineral matter 
and lower in milk sugar, it is frequently found necessary to 
change the composition of cow's milk to more nearly make it 
resemble that of the human being, or to give a milk of known 
composition especially adapted to the particular needs of the 
infant or invalid. Water, barley water, lime water or dextrin- 
ized gruel may be used as a diluent and cream and milk sugar 
may or may not be added. Such a product is called modified 
milk. 

All precautions stated above for the production and handling 
of clean milk as well as the requirements of the certifying 
Medical Society should be observed in producing modified milk. 



CHAPTER XVIII. 



MILK PRODUCTS. 

Condensed Milk. — The importance of milk in the diet and the 
rapid deterioration even under the most favorable conditions, 
have led to much experimentation along the line of its preserva- 
tion for a long period. 

In the early part of the 19th century an attempt was made 
to hold milk indefinitely by reducing the percentage of water. 
As a high temperature was used in the condensing process 
the result was a boiled milk, the composition of which greatly 
differed from the raw material. Lactose like any other sugar 
caramelized in time and gave to the finished product a dark 
color and a bitter taste. Lime salts, so necessary in the digestion 
of milk, were thrown out of solution and the protein matter was 
much altered in composition. The process proved a failure. 

It was not until 1856 that another attempt was made to pre- 
serve milk by condensing it. At that time Gail Borden was 
granted a patent "On a process for concentrating milk by evapo- 
ration in vacuo, having no sugar or other foreign matter mixed 
with it." The Borden process reduced the temperature to 160 F. 
and eventually resulted in placing a satisfactory product on the 
market. Although the early days of the condensed milk business 
were full of discouragement to the manufacturer, the industry 
has now grown to enormous proportions, rapid strides having 
been made during the past ten years. This shows great increase 
in the consumption of condensed milk not only in countries where 
the breeding of the cow is impossible, but also for use on ocean 
liners, in the navy, lumber and mining camps and in home 
markets. 

The successful condensing of milk requires that the raw 
material be produced under the best hygienic surroundings, and 
invariably the dairy conditions will be found to be in a high 
state of development, wherever milk is being treated by the con- 
densing process. 

There are two classes of condensed milk, sweetened and un- 
sweetened. 



2 4 S 



FOOD INDUSTRIES 




FOOD INDUSTRIES 249 

Process. — When milk is received at the factory it is tested, 
filtered to remove dirt, and quickly sterilized by raising the 
temperature of the milk to the boiling point. Sugar is added to 
the extent of about 16 pounds to ioo pounds of milk. The 
sweetened fluid is run into a vacuum pan and kept at a tempera- 
ture of approximately 130 F. until it is condensed about two 
and one-half times. When sufficiently concentrated it is run into 
40 quart cans which are surrounded by ice. During this opera- 
tion which lasts one hour, the milk is constantly stirred with 
paddles after which it is immediately run into tin cans, capped, 
labeled and boxed. While not sterile this product will keep for 
a long period. The long continued heat should destroy most 
bacteria and the addition of sugar acts as a preservative. 

An unsweetened condensed milk meant for immediate use is 
put on the market by many condensing companies. The process 
of manufacture is essentially the same, with the exception that 
no cane sugar is added, and the concentration is a little over 
three times. It is usually sold in glass jars capped with paper 
caps, similar to fresh cream, and will remain sweet and fit for 
consumption as long as fresh cream. 

Evaporated Milk. — Evaporated milk is an unsweetened con- 
densed milk sold in hermetically sealed cans. As no cane sugar 
is added it depends entirely on sterilization for its keeping 
quality. The raw material is held in heating wells for ten to 
twenty minutes, then is run directly into the vacuum pan where 
it is concentrated two and a quarter times. After cooling the 
evaporated milk is immediately put into cans and sealed. The 
hermetically sealed cans are sterilized at a temperature of 235 ° F. 
for one-half hour. While cooling they are subjected to shakers 
to mix the jelly. This agitation breaks up any coagulum which 
may have formed during sterilization. The cans are finally 
placed in a curing room where they are kept for thirty days, 
after which they are examined before being placed on the 
market. As this product is sterile it will keep indefinitely. 

Concentrated Milk. — The Campbell process of concentrating 
milk has placed upon the market in recent years a small amount 
of milk, relatively free from bacteria, and which can be pur- 



25O FOOD INDUSTRIES 

chased at the price of ordinary milk. The best fresh milk which 
can be obtained is used. After being tested the raw product is 
put through the centrifuge, in order to clarify it from stable dirt 
and to separate the cream and skim milk. The cream is pas- 
teurized, while the skim milk is heated for two or three hours 
at a temperature of 140 F. during which a continuous blast of 
filtered air is driven through it. Evaporation is continued until 
three parts of the original product is condensed to one part of 
the concentrated skim milk, after which the pasteurized cream 
is added. The product is placed upon the market in small bottles 
to which three parts of water must be added to give the original 
consistency. On account of the low temperature used, concen- 
trated milk has not materially changed in composition and after 
the addition of water, it appears to have the properties of ordi- 
nary fresh milk. According to Professor Conn the method of 
using combined heat and aeration destroys most of the bacteria, 
especially those of specific diseases, and gives a relatively safe 
milk even for infant feeding. On account of its concentration 
such milk when kept below 50 F. will last for a week or ten 
days. 

Milk Powders. — The process of reducing milk to the powdered 
form has become quite an industry in recent years. To obtain a 
successful product, the milk must be desiccated at a low tempera- 
ture in order to prevent chemical change from taking place. This 
is frequently accomplished by drying in a thin film on metal 
plates in vacuo. The resulting creamy white mass will unite 
readily with water to give the original consistency of the milk. 
On account of the fat, powders prepared from whole milk will 
not keep indefinitely unless placed in cold storage; those from 
skim milk have been found more satisfactory. They are used to 
a large extent for cooking where fresh milk cannot be obtained. 

Market Cream. — Cream is the fatty constituent of milk. It may 
be separated by the same methods as are used in butter-making, 
namely gravity and centrifugal force. When obtained by the use 
of the separator, which method is employed in practically 
all large dairy industries, less loss is involved, time and labor 
are saved and the product obtained is cleaner and richer. Sep- 



FOOD INDUSTRIES 25 1 

arator cream will also keep longer since it does not contain so 
much of the entangled caseinogen. The composition which is 
based largely on the fat content is variable. The U. S. Standard 
cream must contain not less than 18 per cent, of milk fat but 
State standards vary from 15-20 per cent. Cream obtained by 
centrifugal force can be made to vary from "very light" as low 
as 8 per cent, to "very heavy" as high as 70 per cent. A good 
quality for commercial purposes contains from 18-25 P er cent, 
and very rich cream from 35-40 per cent. fat. The Commission 
on Milk Standards requires that no foreign matter be added, 
cream should contain only the ingredients of normal milk. In 
addition to preservatives, gelatin and calcium saccharate (visco- 
gen) have been used to increase the consistency of a low-grade 
product. Cream should be kept under the same conditions as 
have been recommended for sanitary milk. As it is generally ten 
or twelve hours older than the corresponding grade of milk the 
bacterial count is apt to be considerably higher, about five times 
the amount is allowed. 

Ice Cream. — The term ice cream as commonly used is applied 
to a variety of products prepared from frozen milk or cream. 
In the mountainous regions of the Far East sweetened fruit juices 
in a frozen condition known as sherbets were in common use in 
early ages. The custom of eating these frozen products was in- 
troduced into Europe by the Moors and the secret of their prep- 
aration became common property of the Spaniards and natives 
of adjacent countries. Ice cream as a frozen milk product was 
developed in the northern part of Italy, was carried from there 
to France and finally appeared in England during the reign of 
Charles II. In the latter part of the eighteenth century ice 
cream was publicly sold in New York City and one of the largest 
of the existing concerns began business in the same city in the 
early part of the last century. About sixty or seventy years ago 
frozen products made from cream with the addition of sugar 
and flavoring agents became known under the name of Phila- 
delphia Ice Cream. In contrast to that product mixtures of 
milk and sugar with eggs, boiled starch, gelatin, casein or similar 
substances were called Neapolitan Cream. Within the last ten 



252 FOOD INDUSTRIES 

years a compound intermediate between the sherbet and ice 
cream known as Lacto or Sour Milk Ice Cream was introduced 
by Mortensen. 

The manufacture and consumption of these products have in- 
creased in enormous bounds due largely to the practice of com- 
bining ice cream with soda water especially during the heated 
season. In some localities creameries now find it more profitable 
to convert their product into ice cream rather than into butter. 
Standards at present call for 14 per cent, butter fat but if the 
product is to be mixed with nuts, eggs or other highly nutritious 
matter a lower per cent, of cream can be used. While it is 
advisable to maintain a high cream standard it is far more im- 
portant to be certain of a low bacterial count. To ensure safety 
some manufacturers pasteurize cream. This practice does not, 
however, eliminate the danger should ptomaines be present in the 
product due to unsanitary conditions. 

BY-PRODUCTS OF THE BUTTER INDUSTRY. 

The chief industry using milk is the butter industry which 
has been described in Chapter XIV. The most important by- 
products of this industry are mentioned below. 

Skim Milk. — For butter-making the fat is separated from 
whole milk very largely by the centrifuge. With this method 
only a trace of the other constituents is removed with the 
fat; this leaves the skim milk rich in protein and carbo- 
hydrate. As skim milk contains all the normal ingredients of 
ordinary milk except fat, it can very readily be used for cooking 
purposes, or as a beverage for people who find cream hard to 
digest. As the law, however, frequently forbids the selling of 
skim milk, it has been utilized to a great extent for cattle food 
or in many cases thrown away. This is a waste of valuable ma- 
terial for the protein and lactose can be recovered by the follow- 
ing comparatively simple methods. 

Dried Casein. — The skim milk is run into a vat and a small 
amount of sulphuric or acetic acid is added. This precipitates 
the caseinogen in the form of a curd which can readily be 
removed from the whey, washed, pressed, dried and sold as 



FOOD INDUSTRIES 253 

dried casein. It is used in the paper, leather and textile indus- 
tries, as an ingredient of paints, glues, and cement, for the 
manufacture of imitation ivory articles and as several forms of 
concentrated food. 

Milk Sugar. — After the removal of the caseinogen the water 
may be evaporated (over hot water) from the whey until the 
lactose crystallizes. It is generally reduced to the powdered 
form and is much used in pharmacy and for infants' and invalids' 
food. 

Buttermilk. — Buttermilk is the fluid which is left after churn- 
ing in the process of butter-making. It is commonly used as a 
food for young calves and pigs, and as a beverage, esepecially 
during the summer months. The chief points in which it differs 
from milk are poverty in fat and increase in acidity, due to the 
formation of lactic acid which rarely exceeds 0.5 per cent. But- 
termilk is comparatively easy to digest on account of the absence 
of fat and the changed condition of the caseinogen which exists 
in a finely flocculent form. 

Artificially Soured Milk. — A milk which has been artificially 
soured by the addition of lactic acid ferments can now be found 
on the market, or can be prepared at home; it has been highly 
recommended by Metchnikoff. The product is prepared by 
pasteurizing pure fresh milk. The temperature is then lowered, 
cultures of lactic acid bacteria are added, the mass is held at 
ioo° F. for several hours, is then bottled and sold under a trade 
name. 

CHEESE. 

Historical. — Cheese has been known as a valuable food for at 
least one thousand years before the Christian era. It is believed 
to be one of the oldest products manufactured from milk and 
probably owes its origin to the accidental storing of milk curd. 

In the early historic days of the Roman Empire, cheese formed 
an important article of diet and is still used as a chief source of 
protein by the Italians as well as many other European nations. 
It is largely manufactured at the present time in France, Italy, 
Germany, England, Switzerland and Holland. The Americans 
produce large quantities of cheese especially in New York and 



254 FOOD INDUSTRIES 

Wisconsin, but do not as a nation consume as much as the 
Europeans. 

The industry in America was started in a small way, prin- 
cipally by immigrants who sought to earn a livelihood in the 
New World by the same occupation that they had carried on in 
their native land. This is particularly true of the cheese indus- 
try in Wisconsin, which owes its origin to the settlement of 
twenty-seven Swiss families during 1845, m the rough hilly 
country of Greene County. For a long period the wives and 
daughters of the home were the cheese makers, but like many 
other industries, it was gradually transferred to the manufac- 
turer. 

The product is prepared from milk by processes which elim- 
inate water, and gather a large part of the solids together, in 
such a form that the nourishment is retained and capable of 
being preserved for varying periods of time. Many varieties are 
made at the present time. Cow's milk supplies most of the raw 
material, although the milk of the ewe and goat is used largely 
abroad for the manufacture of certain well known cheeses. As 
a rule milk is used in the natural condition and the product is 
then known as whole-milk or full cream cheese. Cream cheese 
is made from milk and cream, while skim-milk cheeses are manu- 
factured from milk from which part of the fat has been re- 
moved. 

Whatever the kind of milk used the general process of manu- 
facture is the same. The raw material must be treated in such 
a way as to precipitate the caseinogen in the form of a curd. 
This may be accomplished in two ways ; by the natural develop- 
ment of lactic acid and by the addition of rennet. The first 
variety known by some such name as pot cheese or cottage 
cheese is not a true cheese, as it has been prepared without the 
use of rennet, which is essential in cheese-making. This type 
cheese is prepared more frequently in the home, is soft in texture 
and has poor keeping quality. The second variety represents 
the many kinds of domestic and foreign cheese found in the mar- 
kets. 



FOOD INDUSTRIES 255 

Composition of Cheese. — Generally speaking the composition of 
cheese is about from one-third to one-quarter each of water, fat 
and protein, with a small amount of mineral matter. The protein 
is largely predigested having been changed to casein by the action 
of rennet. Only a small amount of unchanged caseinogen can 
be found while in many well cured varieties, through the action 
of micro-organisms, part of the casein has been further changed 
to meta-protein, peptone and amino-acids. The mineral matter 
consists of the salts of milk with a small addition of common 
salt to improve the flavor. 

Cheese-making. — The large cheeses found in the American mar- 
ket are prepared by processes more or less copied from the Eng- 
lish Cheddar Process. Cheddar cheese was first made in the 
village of Cheddar, England, about 250 years ago. It has grad- 
ually grown in popularity until the manufacture has now spread 
over the civilized world. 

Process Used in Cheddar Cheese. 

Straining milk. 

Ripening— (82 ° -86° F.). | 

Mixing rennet. I 

Clotting. 

Cutting. j. 

Stirring. 

Cooking 98 F. 

Removing part of whey. 

Cheddaring or matting. 

Grinding. 

Salting. 

Pressing. 

Curing. 
The preliminary treatment of milk is of the greatest impor- 
tance. Successful cheese-making depends to a great extent on 
the purity of the raw material. Great losses are frequently 
caused by carelessness in the production and handling of the 
milk supply, for the quality of the milk in respect to cleanli- 
ness, determines largely the quality of the product that can be 



Under the influence of the 
lactic acid fermentation. 



J 



256 FOOD INDUSTRIES 

manufactured from it. The same cleanliness should be observed 
as in the production of market milk, clean and healthy cows and 
milkers, sanitary conditions of stable, utensjls and other appara- 
tus. Special attention should be given that no odors can be 
absorbed from manure, pig pens or silos, and that the cow has 
not eaten strong smelling food, such as onions, garlic and the like. 

As quickly as possible after being drawn from the cow milk 
should be strained and cooled. To assist the escape of volatile 
matter, it is sometimes aerated by being poured through the air 
from one container to another. Stirring also helps the escape of 
animal odors as well as prevents the cream from rising to the 
top. As lactic acid is desired milk is allowed to ripen either 
naturally or by the addition of a starter, at a temperature of 82 - 
86° F. Tests are made from time to time until the desired acidity 
has been developed. The milk is then run into shallow rectangu- 
lar tanks, so arranged that they can be readily tilted, and contain- 
ing pipes through which hot water can be circulated. A tem- 
perature of about 85 F. is maintained. While heating the milk 
is constantly stirred with paddles to prevent the cream from 
rising to the top. If any coloring matter is to be added it is put 
in at this time. When thoroughly mixed and of the desired 
temperature, the coagulative agent rennet is added, the mass is 
again stirred for a few minutes and is then allowed to rest. 

The active principle of rennet is found in the lining of the 
stomach of milk fed animals. As a rule it is obtained from 
calves although it has been taken from pigs and puppies. Through 
the action of rennet, the conjugated protein caseinogen is split 
into simple proteins, casein and pseudo nuclein, thus making 
cheese a predigested food. The activity of rennet is greatly 
assisted by keeping the mass at body temperature, and by the 
successful ripening of the milk in an earlier stage. The clot or 
curd as it is known to the manufacturer, forms in about ten to 
fifteen minutes, but is usually allowed to stand one-half hour 
before it is put through the process of cutting. The mass is then 
firm enough to break with a clean fracture, when gently pressed 
with the finger. 

Until recent years, the curd was simply broken into irregular 



FOOD INDUSTRIES 257 

pieces with the hand or some instrument, in order to allow the 
escape of the whey. Experimentation has proved that there is 
less loss in the fat content if the curd is cut into uniform pieces. 
The process is now carried on by curd knives which cut the 
mass into small cubes. As the whey makes its escape, the cubes 
sink to the bottom of the vat and are kept from uniting by a 
gentle agitation of the entire mass. 

In order to facilitate the further separation of the whey, the 
temperature is raised to 98°-ioo° F. This shrinks the curd until 
it is about one-half of its former size and causes the development 
of more lactic acid. When sufficient acid has developed the whey 
is again removed and the curd is allowed to mat together (ched- 
daring), various changes taking place during the process. The 
curd is then ground, in order to reduce it to particles of con- 
venient size for receiving the salt and pressing into shape. 

The salt is added principally to give flavor. It has, however, 
another influence, for salt having a great attraction for water, 
the curd is hardened. The mass is next put into a press for 
twenty-four hours to give it shape. After being taken from the 
press the curd is put into the curing room, where it undergoes 
fermentation for four or six weeks or longer. During this time 
the cheeses are turned at frequent intervals and are rubbed on the 
outside with whey butter, a fatty liquid which rises to the top 
of the quietly standing whey. 

Curing. — As cheese is not eaten for its nutritive- value alone, 
but more frequently for the strong appetizing taste, this part of 
the process is most important. It consists in subjecting the 
cheese to the action of micro-organisms, which in their desire for 
food, decompose material giving rise to characteristic flavors 
During this series of fermentations which are not altogether 
understood, gases develop which cause holes to be formed in 
the cheese. The ripening process is carefully guarded as to 
temperature so it will not proceed too rapidly or too far, in 
which case putrefactive fermentation is apt to set in. 

As much of the success of cheese-making depends on the 
curing, bacteria and molds are now being carefully studied in 
connection with this industry. Methods once established by 
17 



258 FOOD INDUSTRIES 

which ripening can be controlled, will insure a uniform product, 
an extension of the manufacture of certain varieties of cheese, 
and a saving of much money to the industry. 

For information in regard to the manufacture of well known 
cheeses, such as Roquefort, Edam, Camembert and Brie, see a 
standard book on dairy products, Milk and Its Products by Wing 
or The Practice and Art of Cheese-making by Van Slyke and 
Publow. 

Uncured Cheeses. — Several varieties of soft uncured cheeses 
may be found on the market, of which Neufchatel and Philadel- 
phia cream cheese are the best known. They are prepared by 
coagulating ripened milk with rennet, allowing the 'curd to de- 
velop a mild acidity, after which the surplus moisture is re- 
moved by drainage and pressure. The curd is then ground, 
salted, molded into shape and wrapped in thin paper and tinfoil. 

Adulteration. — The only extensive form of adulteration prac- 
ticed is the substitution of lard for the usual amount of fat. 
Lard and skim milk can be mixed together with coloring matter, 
put through a process to emulsify the lard, after which reg- 
ular processes of cheese-making can be carried out (filled 
cheese). 

Although adulteration has not been practiced to any large 
extent, much misbranding of cheese has been discovered in the 
United States. Cheese manufactured in this country has been 
frequently found to bear a label conveying the impression that 
the article is of foreign make, also, that the cheese has been made 
of cream and milk, when only whole milk has been used. 



CHAPTER XIX. 



PRESERVATION OF FOODS. 

Methods used in preserving food material may be classified as 
follows : 



Physical 



Chemical 



Use of Preservatives 



( Drying. 
-j Cooling. 
(_ Sterilization and exclusion of air. 

f Sugaring. 

| Salting. 

{ Smoking. 

j Use of fats and oils. 

(^ " " spices. 

Borax and boracic acid. 
Sulphurous acid and sulphites. 
Benzoic " " benzoates. 

Salicylic " salicylates. 

Formaldehyde. 
Peroxide of hydrogen. 



The attempt to preserve food material has been practiced from 
the earliest ages, many centuries before the cause of decay was 
understood. This custom undoubtedly arose from the desire to 
hold provisions obtained in a successful chase or during an abun- 
dant harvest, for periods of famine, inclement weather, or for 
use at other seasons. Modern life is making this subject of vast 
importance, for the crowding of people into large cities neces- 
sarily means the carrying of food for long distances, and present 
habits of living demand the open market for twelve months in 
the year. To meet this problem, bacteriology has been called 
upon to make plain the habits of the micro-organisms, which live 
on food and are the cause of the decay. 

DRYING. 

Drying is the oldest and simplest method the principle being 
exclusively the withdrawal of water. Mold can live on a very 
small amount of moisture for it is frequently seen growing on 
damp floors, walls, cloths, food and the like. Bacteria demand 
considerable water and will not grow unless well supplied. They 



260 FOOD INDUSTRIES 

need a medium that is practically liquid for they are only able to 
absorb food in a fluid condition. Many types of bacteria will 
cease to grow when the amount of water falls to 30 per cent, 
and all stop developing when it is below 25 per cent. 

Nature uses this method of preservation for when grain is 
ripening much of the moisture which was present in the green 
stage gradually disappears, leaving the mature grain shriveled 
and dry. If this were not so putrefaction would soon take place. 
Much of our food material classed as non-perishable — cereals, 
starch, sugar, flour and meal — is preserved in this way. That 
they are good food for micro-organisms can readily be seen by 
their rapid decomposition when water is added. 

Drying seems to be very much better adapted to fruit and 
vegetables than it does to protein matter. The class of sub- 
stances known as dried meat and fish are simply reduced to a 
more or less dry condition after which another method of pres- 
ervation is added. This may consist in the addition of salt, 
sugar or other harmless preservative, or the product may be 
smoked. These cases will be referred to in detail under their 
special heading. 

In early days sun-drying was used entirely and only surplus 
crops were preserved. The disadvantages of the old-fashioned 
method were loss of flavor and color, due to oxidation or en- 
zyme action; and contamination of the freshly exposed surfaces 
by the dust of the atmosphere and insect life. Certain fruits such 
as grapes which are commonly dried intact are still cured by this 
method owing to the protection of the tough skin and the pres- 
ence of organic acids. 

Modern methods in the production and drying of fruit have 
led to an enormous increase in the industry during the past ten 
years. Large orchards are now planted specifically for the pro- 
duction of fruit for drying and in many places the fruit is as 
carefully chosen and handled as that which is being placed on 
the market in the fresh state. In California and such sections as 
are free from rain and excessive moisture open-air drying is 
still extensively employed in conjunction, however, with modern 
sanitary methods. Carefully selected, mature fruit is thoroughly 



FOOD INDUSTRIES 26l 

cleaned by brushing and washing' if necessary. It is then sur- 
face dried, cut into desirable shapes by machinery, placed on 
trays, sometimes sulphured for bleaching and disinfecting pur- 
poses and dried in the sunlight. In countries with less depend- 
able weather conditions in-door drying is largely employed. Sev- 
eral methods are now in use: 1st, hot air drying in which the 
fruit is placed in a cabinet, kiln or tower shaped evaporator 
through which hot air pipes are conducted, provision being made 
to carry off the evaporated moisture; 2nd, the vacuum drier 
operated by alternate exhaustion and renewal of warm air thus 
rapidly removing the moisture; 3rd, filtered air at ordinary tem- 
perature may be employed thus protecting the fruit from a loss 
of flavor which occurs in both of the former methods. 

The increased output of the present day has resulted in not 
only a greater consumption of dried fruits at home but has placed 
such products in the European markets where they can fre- 
quently be bought for a lower price than fresh native fruit. 

COOLING. 

The principle with this method of preservation is surrounding 
food with temperature conditions unfavorable for bacterial de- 
velopment, this may mean low temperature or actually freezing 
according to the product. The thermal death point of micro- 
organisms ranges between wider limits than any other form of 
life. Boiling does not kill all types, neither does freezing. The 
best temperatures at which to hold food in cold storage, or to 
which it should be raised with sterilization, are now being care- 
fully studied. The physical properties of the food product must 
also be considered. With fruit which has a high water content 
and a fragile carbohydrate tissue the expanding force of the ice 
crystals is highly destructive; fruit should never be frozen. In 
the case of flesh foods less water and a tough highly elastic 
tissue, minimizes the effect of the force, hence these products 
can be frozen if desirable. 

Advantages of Cold Storage. — 1st, No nourishment is taken 
from food; 2nd, no foreign matter is added; 3rd, no new taste is 
imparted so the flavor is not greatly changed ; 4th, the digestibility 



262 FOOD INDUSTRIES 

is not diminished ; 5th, a large quantity of perishable goods can 
now be kept that were formerly thrown away. 

Disadvantages of Cold Storage. — 1st, The keeping quality is 
impaired especially when too low a- temperature has been used. 
The physical condition is frequently altered so bacteria can more 
readily act upon it as with meat or fish. Such food should be 
consumed as quickly as possible when taken from refrigeration ; 
2nd, fruit deteriorates rapidly after having been in cold storage. 
This is frequently caused by a large amount of moisture con- 
densing on the surface of cold fruit when taken into a warm 
place, thus making the conditions most favorable for mold 
growth ; 3rd, it has led unscrupulous dealers to hold back prod- 
ucts for high prices. 

In spite of these disadvantages cold storage has been one of 
the best methods so far used for preserving foods. Beginning 
in i860 its use has spread enormously and has made possible 
the uniform distribution of fresh foods, such as meat, poultry, 
eggs, milk, fruit, vegetables and the like throughout every part 
of the country. By an interchange of the surplus with foreign 
nations, it has vastly improved the world's food supply and has 
greatly remedied the enormous waste, in many sections of both 
hemispheres. 

Manufacturers' methods of coolings are either employment of 
ice or the expansion of compressed gas, as used in the ammonia 
process. The housewife must as a rule depend upon an ice 
. chest which is generally kept too warm. The temperature of an 
ordinary refrigerator registers from 50 to 6o° F., whereas it 
should be kept below 50 F. 

Precautions in Care of the Ice Chest. — 1st, Do not wrap ice in 
newspaper for it is only in melting that a low temperature is 
maintained ; 2nd, keep ice chest well filled with ice ; 3rd, keep the 
chest as dry as possible as cold damp air harbors many low forms 
of plant and animal life; 4th, charcoal should not be utilized for 
lining as it soon becomes clogged and makes a fine incubator for 
bacteria; 5th, wash frequently with warm water and a neutral 
soap. 

The preservation of food in refrigerators depends on three 



FOOD INDUSTRIES 263 

conditions — low temperature, ventilation and dryness. Low tem- 
perature can only be secured by the melting of the ice. Ventila- 
tion in the past depended entirely on the opening and shutting of 
the door but in all well constructed refrigerators of the modern 
type provision is made for circulation of air. Dryness depends 
upon the rapid change of air in the ice-box and in a certain 
sense is connected with the question of ventilation. 

STERILIZATION AND EXCLUSION OF AIR. 

See Chapter XX — The Canning Industry. 
SUGARING. 

Preserving by means of sugar is not used to as large an extent 
to-day as it was in former years. The great improvements 
achieved by canning manufacturers have made their products so 
popular that they have largely taken the place of the old-fash- 
ioned preserves. 

The antiseptic action of sugar appears to be due to the ease 
with which bacteria give up to concentrated solutions a part of 
their constitutional elements thus weakening their reproductive 
power. The old-fashioned housekeeper's recipe usually read — 
"A pound of sugar to a pound of fruit," thus the product was as 
a rule protected against fermentation. It was quite possible, 
however, for mold to grow but the formation always occurred on 
the surface and could readily be removed. Melted paraffin 
poured over the top of the preserved product largely protects 
it against mold growth. 

The great disadvantage with this method is the altered taste. 
Sugar is added in such large quantities that the strength of its 
flavor conceals or destroys other flavors that are desired, such 
as the pleasant acidity of many fruits. A second inconvenience 
is the large quantity of sugar that is required in order to preserve 
a small quantity of fruit, hence the use of it is very expensive. 
Preserved fruit is used to-day only as a sweetmeat. 

It has been found possible to preserve meat and fish by the 
use of sugar alone. Although this method has never been used 
with protein material in America, it is still customary in Por- 
tugal to preserve fish, such as the salmon, by splitting, cleaning 



264 FOOD INDUSTRIES 

and sprinkling the interior with sugar. The claim is made that 
fish prepared in this way can be kept for a long time with a per- 
fectly fresh flavor. 

SALTING. 

The keeping of food material with salt has been used from 
very early times. The discovery of its preservative action was 
probably accidental, due to the finding of animal carcasses em- 
bedded in the saline deserts of Asia. Ancient wine makers fre- 
quently used salt water with the object of keeping their product 
for a longer period, and Pliny speaks of flesh food being treated 
with salt and meat being preserved with brine. The custom of 
salting fish was also known to the Greeks and Romans, but it 
seemed to have been used more as an incentive to the consump- 
tion of wine than because of any wish to add to the keeping 
quality of the product. 

The efficiency of salt as a preservative is probably due to the 
fact that in saturated solution the greater part of the tissue pro- 
tein is insoluble. Further, salt being a highly crystalline com- 
pound readily penetrates the tissue and in a short time the liquid 
portion reaches the point of saturation desired. The process of 
removing the salt before using is the reverse of the above and is 
termed freshening; this operation is more or less completely 
carried out just previous to cooking. There are three methods 
of salting as follows: 1st. Dry-salting or powdering where the 
sodium chloride in the powder form is freely rubbed on the sur- 
face of the object, the operation being repeated until the mois- 
ture appears to be absorbed. In many cases the material has 
been partially dried previous to salting. This method is now 
confined to certain types of fish. 2nd. Wet-salting — a slight modi- 
fication of the above with less salt used. 3rd. Pickling — the com- 
monest method of salting consists of immersing the product in 
a saturated solution of salt (pickle) and adding more dry salt 
from time to time, in order to overcome any diluting tendency, 
due to the admixture of the pickle and tissue liquid. In case 
of red meats salt-petre is added to the pickle on the plea that 
it tends to retain the color. This method is extensively used for 
vegetables, meats and fish. 



FOOD INDUSTRIES 265 

. While salt is harmless and is needed in the diet this method 
on the whole has not been found satisfactory. The flavor is 
greatly altered, the physical nature of the product is so changed 
by the toughening of the fiber that it is more difficult to digest 
and the loss of nourishment due to osmosis is considerable. Other 
methods of preservation have to a great extent taken the place 
of salting. 

SMOKING. 

The art of smoking meat and fish to assist in its preservation 
has been practiced from remote ages. The custom probably 
originated from the habit of suspending food material within the 
tent or primitive dwelling. Being close to an open wood fire, 
smoke arose saturating the hanging material and not only gave 
it an agreeable taste, but greatly assisted in the keeping quality. 
This simple practice is still largely followed in isolated sections. 
Small smoke-houses are frequently found in many parts of the 
country, where meat or fish can be laid across slats near the 
roof and smoke from a wood fire allowed to pass over it. 

The preservative action is now known to be due to certain 
products present in the smoke, such as creosote, which contains 
a bactericidal substance known as guaiacol. Formaldehyde and 
acetic acid are also present in smoke, but as they are extremely 
volatile, they are of little use. Creosote being less volatile re- 
mains on the exterior of the meat and acts as a violent germi- 
cide, while being perfectly harmless to the human consumer of 
the product. Since many woods also yield turpentine on burn- 
ing it is necessary to select beech, hickory, oak or such woods 
as yield creosote and not terpene compounds which would affect 
the flavor. Water plays an important part in the production 
of creosote so generally the wood is used in the green state (Fig. 
64). 

Smoking does not protect against all forms of micro-organ- 
isms. Mold can attack food preserved in this way, but it is 
usually only on the surface and can readily be removed with a 
cloth dampened with lard or sweet oil. Canvas-covered meats 
are less likely to be attacked by mold. As smoking does not 



266 



FOOD INDUSTRIES 



reach the interior only material free from contamination should 
be used. 

It is quite customary to combine salting and sugaring with 
smoking as in sugar cured hams. If such products are of a 
high grade they are immersed in a pickle composed of salt, 
salt-petre, sugar and spices for forty to sixty days, after which 
they are placed in a smoke-house for three days. This process 
is excellent but it is long and increases the cost so a quicker, 




Fig. 64.— The Sausage Smoke House. (Courtesy of Armour & Co., Chicago, 111.) 



cheaper method is occasionally substituted. Brine is pumped 
into the ham and the product is then treated with smokine. This 
preservative contains minute particles of creosote in solution 
and may be applied by a brush or by dipping meat quickly into 
the solution and afterwards drying it. This method is not as 
effective as the use of the old-fashioned smoke-house and the 
creosote is more likely to penetrate. 



FOOD INDUSTRIES 267 

USE OF FATS AND OILS. 

Foods which do not contain a large amount of fat are excellent 
when put up in oil, sterilized and sealed to prevent the oil from 
becoming rancid. A coating of oil is also frequently used to 
preserve foods by the exclusion of air. This method has been 
used largely abroad where birds are dried and saturated with 
oil ; goose-livers similarly treated are sold as "pate-de-foie- 
gras." These products are considered great delicacies. In Italy 
wine is often covered with oil to prevent bacterial action, and in 
Arctic regions many kinds of meat are preserved in this way. 
Possibly the most common food on our market put up in oil is the 
sardine although tuna fish, salmon, mushrooms, truffles and arti- 
chokes are also important products. 

The name sardine was originally given to a variety of fish 
found in the Mediterranean near the Island of Sardinia but the 
commercial usage now includes several varieties, the French 
sardine being the young of the pilchard, and the American, 
young herring. 

During the process of manufacture the fish are carefully 
sorted into sizes, cleaned, placed in brine, washed in fresh water, 
dried in the open on trays, immersed in oil, boxed and sterilized. 
Olive and peanut oils are largely used abroad while cottonseed 
is frequently substituted, especially in the United States. As a 
rule the French sardine receives greater care in the manufacture 
and is supposed to improve with age caused by the blending of 
fish, oil and flavoring. 

This method of preservation is used in Germany in the manu- 
facture of sausages. In the German market, two types of sau- 
sage can be found : those so rich in fat that they can be kept 
for some time; and those which are lean and must depend upon 
the preservative influence of the high content of spices. The 
casing in both types is more or less impervious to any material. 

USE OF SPICES. 

Spices were originally added to food to change or modify the 
flavor, but it has been found that they exercise a powerful pre- 
servative effect. See Chapter XXII. Spices. 



268 FOOD INDUSTRIES 

ALCOHOL. 

Alcohol makes protein matter insoluble thus killing bacterial 
life. For this reason it is used largely in preserving biological 
specimens. To a slight extent it is also used for foods. Fruits 
of all seasons can be put up in an alcohol solution and preserved 
indefinitely. 

USE OF PRESERVATIVES. 

It is well known that certain chemicals when added to food 
have a restraining influence upon bacteria, yeast and molds 
which are associated with its decomposition. Some simply pre- 
vent the further development, others act as strong bactericidal 
agents. In the early days of the canning industry, they were 
largely used but modern methods of sanitation and sterilization 
by heat have proved so much more reliable and less expensive, 
that manufacturers of legitimate products have now almost en- 
tirely abandoned their use, regardless of the Pure Food Law. 

The harmful nature of these chemical compounds has been ar- 
gued for and against for a long period. At the present time prob- 
ably all agree that their use is absolutely unnecessary for goods 
that are to be consumed within a short period. There is still, 
however, much discussion as to using them in such products as 
chili-sauce, ketchup, apple butter and other foods classed as rel- 
ishes. These products have been cooked thus making them more 
susceptible to bacterial action after being opened. The claim is 
made that the housekeeper through careless handling frequently 
spoils food that the manufacturer has taken so much trouble to 
preserve. The prohibition of all preservatives would be as un- 
satisfactory to the consumer as to the producer. At the present 
time benzoate of soda is allowed by the Federal Government, it 
having been determined as not being poisonous or deleterious to 
health. When used each container must bear a label stating the 
amount. Although the government does not limit the quantity, 
one-tenth of I per cent, is employed by manufacturers. The use 
of salicylic acid or its salts is now forbidden. Rideal claims that 
the salts are irritating to the kidneys and distinctly antagonistic 
to most enzymes, especially starch digesting ferments. Neither 



FOOD INDUSTRIES 269 

can one part in a thousand always be relied upon as experiments 
have proved. 

Arguments advanced in favor of their use are : 

1st, These antiseptics are harmless when used in small amounts. 
One part benzoate of soda in 1,000 is not injurious and may be 
beneficial in warding off intestinal diseases ; 2nd, they are found 
occurring naturally in many of our fruits, such as currants, 
cranberries, raspberries and crab-apples; 3rd, these antiseptics 
are frequently developed during manufacturing processes es- 
pecially where sterilization by high temperatures is necessary. 

Arguments against their use : 

1 st, They are not violent poisons, but some are believed to be 
undesirable as they are antif ermentatives so interfere with the 
digestive ferments ; 2nd, they are irritants so are apt to injure 
the mucous membrane of the stomach and intestinal canal; 3rd, 
the blood has for its chief function oxidation. These compounds 
interfere with the oxidizing function of the blood; 4th, the 
amount is not always small. 

Possibly the strongest reasons for prohibiting their use are 
that it may lead to carelessness in manufacturing processes and 
to the use of inferior material. Neither can they be regarded as 
"cure-alls" for they do not affect ptomaines which cause disease. 

Artificial Stveetening. — Saccharine has been largely used for 
sweetening syrups, preserves, jams, jellies, canned goods and 
similar products. It is a glistening white powder resembling 
sugar, but with a much greater sweetening power, thus making 
it a cheaper agent to use. Saccharine is obtained by the oxida- 
tion of one of the coal tar products and has no food value. It 
is believed to be an irritant so its use has been forbidden. 

Artificial Coloring. — The employment of artificial coloring in 
connection with food has been practiced for the past fifty years. 
The colors have included animal, vegetable and mineral dyes for 
a long period and recent years have added an innumerable num- 
ber of coal tar dyes to the list. The animal and vegetable dyes 
have included cochineal, annatto, turmeric, logwood, saffron and 
carrot juice, which are generally supposed to be harmless. At 
present the only mineral dyes being used to any extent are copper 



27O FOOD INDUSTRIES 

sulphate in green vegetables and fruit, oxide of iron in cocoa, 
confectionery, condiments, sausages and the like and Prussian 
blue in sugar refining. 

Copper sulphate is generally considered to have a deleterious 
effect on the consumer. There seems to be reason for the belief 
that copper is a cumulative poison similar to lead and mercury, 
hence it is wise to abstain from these products. The use of 
copper is prohibited in Germany, Austria-Hungary and is limited 
in many other European nations. Since the report of the Referee 
Board of Consulting Scientific Experts the importation of cop- 
pered vegetables has been forbidden in the United States. 

The coal tar dyes are unlimited in variety and are used ex- 
tensively in confectionery, jellies, jams, meat, dairy products, 
wines and non-alcoholic beverages. Usually the amount is very 
small rarely exceeding one part in one hundred thousand and 
for this reason, it is almost impossible to form an opinion in 
regard to whether or not they are injurious to health. While 
such coloring matter may not be detrimental to the consumer, 
the use is unfortunate for it enables the manufacturer to place 
inferior goods upon the market for high grade material. Articles 
of food are preferable in their natural color, and it is unfortu- 
nate that the housewife so frequently chooses highly colored 
goods thus encouraging the use of artificial coloring matter. 



CHAPTER XX. 



THE CANNING INDUSTRY. 

Historical. — The process of food preservation by canning- was 
invented in 1810 by Nicholas Appert of Paris. The underlying 
principle of this method, the destruction of all life by means 
of heat followed by the exclusion of air by hermetically sealing, 
was established by the experimental work of Spallanzani, in 
1765. By placing various nutritive liquids in tubes, sealing, and 
boiling them for an hour, he discovered that the liquid remained 
unchanged as long as the seal was unbroken. 

During the wars of Napoleon, much dissatisfaction occurred 
in regard to the food that his army was obliged to eat while on 
the march. An investigation followed which led to the offering 
of a prize of 12,000 francs to any man who could keep food 
indefinitely in its natural condition without adding the preserva- 
tives then in use which included salt, sugar, vinegar and smoke. 
It was won by Appert who after long practical experience in 
confectionaries, kitchens, breweries and distilleries, had been 
working for many years along the line of food preservation. 
Food material was placed in air tight containers after it had been 
subjected to such a degree of heat that the contents had been 
thoroughly sterilized. The apparatus used by Appert was neces- 
sarily very crude but his discoveries laid the foundation for one 
of the greatest industries of modern times. 

About the same time, Peter Durand obtained a patent in Eng- 
land for preserving meat, fruit and vegetables in tin cans, and 
shortly after several other manufacturers introduced similar 
methods. The theory upon which these men worked was, that 
the oxygen contained in air was the destructive agent and its 
exclusion alone would preserve food which had been cooked. 
It was not until the time of Tyndall and Pasteur that the real 
cause of putrefaction was understood. The industry was estab- 
lished in the United States by Ezra Daggett, who after learning 
the trade abroad, canned salmon, lobsters and oysters in New 
York in 1819. Shortly afterward William Underwood started 



2J2. FOOD INDUSTRIES 

to pack tomatoes, and in 1837 Isaac Winslow began experiment- 
ing with the canning of corn in Portland, Maine. Spreading 
gradually throughout the east, canneries were finally introduced 
into the middle west about the time of the breaking out of the 
Civil War and within a year or two, we find their establishment 
in California. The discovery of gold in the west gave the first 
impetus to this industry for canned goods were used largely by 
the 49ers, who found them a convenient form in which to carry 
food material across the country. Again the industry was af- 
fected in the early sixties by the discovery that canned goods 
were vastly superior to dried food in palatability for army use. 
The growth of the industry since that time has been very rapid 
and at the present time canneries are scattered throughout the 
United States. Along the Atlantic Coast large quantities of 
vegetables, meat and fish are preserved. Oregon and Washing- 
ton supply much of the salmon, Chicago packs largely meat, 
while California furnishes fruit and vegetables of the highest 
grade. 

The rapid growth resulted in the formation of Associations 
of Canners the development of which led to new and better 
methods of making cans, great improvements in machinery, 
skilled workers and much experimentation in regard to the best 
methods of sterilization. In the latter work manufacturers have 
been greatly assisted by scientific investigation. 

While the United States puts out enormous quantities of certain 
products, such as corn, tomatoes and salmon, European coun- 
tries have a considerably larger variety of articles. Numerous 
combination of mixed vegetables, meat and vegetables and meat 
delicacies are placed on the market, one country alone having 
canneries whose output includes several hundred different items. 
The future possibilities of this industry both at home and abroad 
are very great, if by rigid inspection only canned foods consisting 
of good wholesome material, packed with proper care under sani- 
tary conditions are placed upon the market. 

Process. — As before stated the two principal points to be borne 
in mind in the preservation of foods by canning are: — 1st, the 



FOOD INDUSTRIES 



273 



destruction of all micro-organisms and their spores by means of 
heat ; 2nd, the exclusion of air by hermetically sealing. As a rule 
the can and food are sterilized at the same time but the details of 
the process necessarily vary with different products and in 
various canneries. Fruit and vegetables should be selected when 
at their best, transported as quickly as possible to the factory 
and immediately sorted for quality. They are washed, treated 
according to the product and placed at once in cans. Care is 
given that the cans are filled full, then closely covered with the 
exception of a small hole for exit of steam. They are then 
subjected to the temperature of boiling water or higher according 
to the material. The hole is immediately closed with solder, the 
cans reheated and allowed to cool. Some factories accomplish 




Fig. 65.— Stock Boilers. (Courtesy of the Franco-American Food Co.) 

the same result by means of a steam heated "exhaust box," which 
withdraws part of the air in the filled cans before they are sent 
to the capping department. With either method a partial vacuum 
is formed within the can which causes the end to be depressed. 
Should the process of sterilization be imperfect and bacteria or 
spores be left within the can, fermentation soon begins and 
18 



274 



FOOD INDUSTRIES 



the formation of gas causes the top to bulge. Canned goods 
are usually kept for one month and are then tested by striking 
with the finger. Expert examiners are able to tell by the sound 
if a partial vacuum still remains. 

With the best manufacturers all cans which show the presence 
of gas are thrown away. In some factories, however, they are 
resterilized. This practice is dangerous as injurious products 
may have developed which are not affected by reheating (Figs. 
65 and 66). 

Success of Canning. — There has been a great difference with 
various foods in regard to successful canning:. Fruits are more 




Fig. 66.— Sterilizing Process. (Courtesy of the Franco-American Food Co.) 



subject to the attack of yeast and molds which are killed at a com- 
paratively low temperature, so have given little trouble. Toma- 
toes, corn and peas, however, have been successfully canned only 
after much experimentation. Even after careful treatment and 
sealing, these products have frequently undergone the putrefactive 
changes that it was the purpose of canning to prevent. Through 



FOOD INDUSTRIES 275 

scientific investigation, the discovery was made that these vege- 
tables are invaded with bacteria, the spores of which will resist 
heat for a length of time. If when the can is sealed a single 
spore remains capable of action complete destruction of the prod- 
uct follows in the course of time. For a long period it 'was 
thought impossible to can green corn, for that vegetable had given 
the manufacturer more trouble than any other product. With the 
aid of the bacteriologist the problem has been completely solved. 
Corn is not only invaded by extremely resistant spore bearing 
bacteria but the kernels are not easily penetrated by heat. Those 
which lie next to the can are easily sterilized but the interior 
layers do not heat readily. For this reason a thermometer is 
usually put in the center of a test-can and the temperature is 
carefully registered. It has been found necessary to use 250 F. 
for 65 minutes in order to render all spores inert. 

Regardless of the product the. success of canning depends on 
the sanitary conditions which prevail throughout the factory, the 
quality of the material and the rapidity with which it is handled. 

Meat Products. — In the canning of meat the fore-quarter as a 
rule is used, the hind-quarter selling better as fresh meat. Al- 
though this may mean a poorer grade meat, it does not necessarily 
indicate that it is any less healthy. Before sterilization meat is 
usually cut into uniform pieces, as different sizes would mean 
disintegration of the smaller pieces, before the larger ones are 
cooked, thus giving a bad appearance to the finished product. 
The meat is then par-boiled for 8-20 minutes to secure shrinkage 
before being put in cans. The further processes of sterilization 
and exclusion of air are quite similar to those used in other 
canning industries. 

A large variety of potted and deviled meat can also be found 
on the market. As the process of manufacture is usually a trade 
secret their exact composition is difficult to determine, but they 
are largely composed of beef or pork, mixed with spices and 
flavoring, the larger amount of condiments being used with the 
deviled varieties. 

Containers. — Manufacturers use either glass or tin in preserv- 
ing. The preference usually is in favor of glass but it is a ques- 



276 FOOD INDUSTRIES 

tion whether this is warranted, except in certain products which 
cannot be preserved to the best advantage in tin. 

Advantages of Glass. — 1st, Food material such as fruit or vege- 
tables look very attractive; 2nd, it contains no lead or other 
dangerous material; 3rd, in the household it is much easier to 
handle. 

Disadvantages of Glass. — 1st, The jars to be strong must be 
made of thick glass which is likely to break with a sudden change 
of temperature. They also break easily if struck with a blow; 
2nd, they cannot be handled with automatic machinery ; 3rd, 
transportation is difficult on account of the weight and liability 
to break. They occupy too much space; 4th, it is frequently 
necessary to cover the glass with paper as light has a bleaching 
effect on some products. 

Caution. — When glass jars are used in the home they must 
be made air tight. This is a difficult thing to do especially where 
rubber bands are used. Old rubber bands have lost their elas- 
ticity so are not safe to use. It pays to buy new ones. As sul- 
phur has been used to impart elasticity and to keep the rubber 
from sticking, the new bands should be moistened before using. 

Advantages of Tin Containers. — 1st, They are light to handle 
and occupy less space in storing and during transportation; 2nd, 
they are less likely to break; 3rd, products are protected from 
light; 5th, they are much easier to make air-tight; 5th, tin cans 
cannot be refilled ; 6th, if a good quality of tin has been used and 
the can carefully made there is no danger of poisoning. 

Disadvantages of Tin Containers. — 1st, Tin cans are not prac- 
tical for use in the household ; 2nd, they are dangerous if a poor 
grade of tin has been used or the process of manufacture has 
not been thoroughly carried out; 3rd, with such products as 
raspberries, cherries, plums and beets, they are not desirable as 
the tin coating is attacked resulting in a loss of color, flavor and 
quality. Salts of tin are also formed which are objectionable. 
For the protection of these products a recent improvement has 
been made by coating or lacquering the inside of the can. While 
such coatings are not perfect, they are a step in advance and 
further improvement will undoubtedly be made in the near future. 



FOOD INDUSTRIES 



277 



According to work done by the United States Department of 
Agriculture,* such products as corn, peas, beans and tomatoes 
have little action on tin so a coating is unnecessary. 

On the whole there is practically little risk now in the use of 
tin as the manufacture of cans has greatly improved. They are 
made of sheet iron which has been cleaned and rolled out to the 
proper thickness, dipped into acid to remove oxide, put quickly 




Fig. 67. — Can Closing Machines. (Courtesy of the Franco-American Food Co.) 

into water then dried, after which the sheet is dipped quickly 
into melted tin. Before being made into cans by machinery they 
are carefully examined. If the oxide has not been removed the 
tin will not stick, thus leaving the iron exposed to the action of 
organic acids occurring in fruits and vegetables. All imperfectly 
made sheets are rejected. The modern can is made with lock 
seams and outside soldering (Fig. 67). As the sealing in many 
cases is done by double seaming on the top no solder is used 

* The Canning of Foods. Bulletin No. 151. Bureau of Chemistry. 



278 FOOD INDUSTRIES 

except on the side seam. This overcomes possible contamination 
by solder in contact with food material. By a recent process the 
so-called sanitary can is formed by machine, filled and closed 
without the use of solder. 

To insure the safe usage of products packed in tin, it is abso- 
lutely necessary that the contents be removed from the tin after 
the can has been opened, to avoid the effects of oxidation. 

Adulteration. — Since modern methods of sterilization have been 
employed, the use of preservatives in the canning industry has been 
practically abandoned, as they simply add to the cost. Saccha- 
rine, bleaches and coloring matter now constitute the chief adul- 
terants. Saccharine has been frequently added to corn, toma- 
toes and peas to disguise the fact that sweet varieties of the 
garden vegetable were not used. A bleaching agent is frequently 
employed to whiten corn, and peas and other green vegetables are 
given a brighter green shade by the addition of copper salts. Dur- 
ing canning and on standing peas are apt to lose part of the 
chlorophyl through oxidation processes, which give them a yellow- 
ish appearance. Copper salts will unite with the nitrogenous 
constituents of the peas to form a compound with a brilliant 
green, thus restoring the original color, although the shade lacks 
the delicacy of the natural green. The coloring of peas is largely 
practiced in France, but as a rule is not used by American can- 
ners (see page 270). Very little adulteration has been found 
in tomatoes except the addition of coloring matter, such as coch- 
ineal or coal tar dye. The artificial coloring has been used to 
make inferior material appear as mature and high grade tomatoes. 

The adulteration of canned meat is probably more often prac- 
ticed than with vegetables, but it has been found by no means 
common by the Bureau of Chemistry. It consists largely in the 
substitution of cheaper meats and fat and the addition of starch 
to increase bulk and weight. Coloring matter and preservatives 
as borax and boracic acid are still occasionally found. 



CHAPTER XXI. 



TEA, COFFEE AND COCOA. 



TEA. 

Historical. — According to the writings of an ancient Chinese 
author, the virtues of tea were known in the Orient some 2,700 
years before the Christian era. Many legends exist as to the 
original home, some claiming that it was first grown in China, 
while others speak of its introduction into that kingdom from 
one of the neighboring provinces of India. 

For a long period it seems to have been used as a medicine 
rather than as a beverage. Gradually growing in popularity, 
however, it eventually became a national drink and the cultiva- 
tion of the tea plant for this purpose grew to be an important in- 
dustry in China, Japan, India and Ceylon. 

It was not until the latter part of the 16th century that the 
ships of the Dutch East India Co., in their voyages to the Orient, 
carried back to Holland some of the curiosities of the Eastern 
World, one of them being Chinese tea. Knowledge of it finally 
passed over to England and in 1657, we hear of the first tea-house 
being opened in Exchange Alley, London. For many years the 
price per pound was so high that tea was looked upon as a rare 
luxury, but by the latter part of the 17th century it was being 
imported from China in such large amounts, that it "ceased to be 
a rarity. As the price lowered the annual consumption grew 
until at the present time Great Britain uses considerably more 
than one-half of the world's total production. Tea was intro- 
duced into the colonies as early as 1680, the price at that time 
being five or six dollars per pound for the cheapest varieties. 

Cultivation of the Tea Plant. — The tea plant is a hardy ever- 
green shrub, which grows to a height of from twelve to fifteen 
feet in the wild state, but under cultivation it is usually dwarfed 
in order to stimulate the greatest possible growth of the young 
shoots. These yield the tender new leaves so desirable in tea- 
making. It will grow in a variety of climates, but the sub-trop- 



28o 



FOOD INDUSTRIES 



ical appears to be the best, especially in sections where the rain- 
fall approximates fifty inches annually. The plant is usually 




Fig. 68.— The Tea Plant. (Courtesy of McCorraick & Co., Baltimore, Md.) 

placed on a southern exposure, so the sunshine will protect it 
from cold, and in soil which has a certain water-retaining prop- 
erty. In China most of the tea gardens are small, each farmer 



FOOD INDUSTRIES 28 1 

producing - enough for the consumption of his own family, while 
the surplus is sent to the market. Following this idea, the United 
States Department of Agriculture has strongly recommended the 
growing of tea on the farms of the South Atlantic and Gulf 
States. With very little trouble and expense the southern farmer 
could at least raise enough tea for his own use, while the plant 
itself makes a hedge well worth cultivating for purely ornamen- 
tal purposes. Farmers Bulletin, No. 301, "Home Grown Tea" 
gives many ideas as to the successful cultivation and manufac- 
ture of tea in the United States. 

In modern methods of cultivation, the plants are raised from 
seeds in nurseries and are set out in their permanent home in 
the open when about twelve inches high. According to climate, 
soil, etc., the first crop is borne in three or four years, and from 
that time, the shrub may be picked at regular intervals. It is 
customary to occasionally allow the plant to rest thus insuring a 
longer life. 

General Classification. — The differences in the tea appearing 
on the market do not depend upon the variety of shrub, but 
rather on the size of the leaf and the way in which it is treated 
during manufacturing processes. According to the method of 
curing it is designated as : — 

Black tea, which has a dark, dull appearance. 

Green tea, which has a rather brilliant tinge due to the retention 
of part of the chlorophyl. 

For a long period, China so jealously guarded her tea gardens, 
that her green and black teas were supposed by foreign nations, 
to be produced from different species of shrub. That this idea 
was false was finally proved by Robert Fortune, who traveled 
in China on behalf of the Horticultural Society of Great Britain. 

Tea is also classified according to the size of the leaf (Fig. 69). 

1 st. Pekoe, which consists of the three young shoots at the tip 
and are known as flowery pekoe, orange pekoe and pekoe acord- 
ing to their size. As these leaves contain the least fiber and the 
most juice, they produce the finest grade of tea. 

2nd. Souchong is prepared from the leaves immediately below 



282 



FOOD INDUSTRIES 



the pekoe variety and makes a tea of popular price. Pekoe and 
souchong are sometimes mixed when the product is known as 
pekoe-souchong. 

3rd. Congou is a cheaper variety prepared from the more fully 
developed leaves below the souchong size. In the American 




2l // 



C, /^e/foc c/, "SlscAo-rro (f irsf J 

of & (rrr/xcc/J fe/(x>c j c?.£>,c.c/. e 



a on 



/e/*Coe - *5o 



'oc/c /? o r? <9 



Fig. 69. 



market this term is sometimes used as a general name for China 
black teas and souchong for China green teas. 

4th. Bohea is a name frequently applied to any larger leaf 
used for tea-making than the congou variety. This tea is no 
longer found on our market. 



FOOD INDUSTRIES 



283 



Processes of Manufacture.- 
Black Tea 

Leaves picked. 

Withered in the sun. 

Rolled until soft. 

Fermented. 

Fired. 

Sorted. 
Picking. — The tea leaves 



are 



operation generally being carried 



Green Tea 

Leaves picked. 

Withered in pans. 

Rolled until soft. 

Withered again. 

Sweated in bags. 

Slowly roasted, 
plucked entirely by hand, the 
on by women and children. In 




Fig. 70.— Withering Tea Reaves. (Courtesy of The Spice Mill Publishing Co.) 

China and Japan there are several harvests. The first picking 
commences about the middle of April and gives delicate pale 
green leaves, which usually command a high price. About two 
weeks later, the bush is again ready to be plucked and again a 
third and fourth picking follow, each harvest yielding leaves a 
little lower in quality. In Ceylon where there is practically no 
winter, picking takes place about every ten or twelve days the 
year round. 

Withering. — Whether small or large the leaves are of the same 



284 



FOOD INDUSTRIES 



general structure. All consist of a certain amount of fibrous 
material which must be softened by rolling. In order to make 
this operation easier the leaves are first withered, either indoors 
or by exposure to the sun, until part of the moisture has evap- 
orated (Fig. 70). In good weather this operation takes about 
eighteen to twenty-four hours but when cloudy or rainy, artificial 
heat must be used and a longer time is required. Withering not 
only softens the leaves, but assists in the production of the 
greatest amount of enzyme which is needed in the later operation 
of fermentation. 




Fig. 71.— Rolling Tea L,eaves. (Courtesy of The Tea and Coffee Trade Jout nal.) 



Rolling. — In China, rolling is still done very largely by hand 
(Fig. 71). The worker gathers a quantity of leaves in his hands 
and rolls and kneads the mass with a very similar motion to that 
used in the kneading of dough. In India the withered leaves 
are rolled almost entirely by machinery. This operation bruises 
the leaves, takes out excess moisture, and gives the characteristic 
twist to the leaf. 



FOOD INDUSTRIES 285 

Fermentation. — Fermentation is the most important part of the 
preparation of black tea, for its influence on the quality and 
character of the tea is very great. The rolled leaves are piled 
in heaps on mats or frames and allowed to ferment until they turn 
a bright copper tint. During this period, the tea leaves are sub- 
jected to the influence of enzyme action and important chemical 
changes take place. The green color of the leaves and the dis- 
agreeable odor disappear, and a fine flavor due to the development 
of essential oils is acquired in proportion to the amount of enzyme 
in the leaf. According to the investigations of Dr. H. H. Mann 
"The tannin is oxidized during fermentation and combines with 
other substances in the leaf-forming compounds, some of which 
are insoluble in water; there is, therefore, a decrease in soluble 
tannin." Experienced judgment is necessary to determine how 
far fermentation should proceed; too little means rawness and if 
carried too far, much of the delicate flavor is lost. 

Firing. — Fermentation is checked by the application of heat. 
The leaves are sometimes exposed to the sun then fired or they 
may be immediately fired, care being taken that the temperature 
is sufficiently high to remove moisture, but not high enough to 
drive off the volatile oils which have been developed during 
curing. 

Sorting. — After cooling, tea is sorted into grades by sifting, 
packed into lead-lined chests and is ready for transportation. 

Green Tea. — The preparation of green tea differs from that 
of black tea in several important operations. 

1st, The method of drying is different. While black tea is 
withered in the sun, the leaves for green tea in Japan are steamed 
until they lose their elasticity and in China are heated in pans 
over charcoal fires. In a few minutes the leaves become soft 
and pliable and are ready to be rolled. 

2nd, After rolling, the leaves are again subjected to the action 
of a slow, steady fire, the process of fermentation being omitted. 
The chlorophyl is therefore more or less retained and tannins 
are not oxidized to insoluble forms. This means that a larger 
amount of tannic acid is found in green tea when used as a 



286 FOOD INDUSTRIES 

beverage. The difference in flavor is entirely due to fermenta- 
tion. 

Adulteration. — In former years when tea was expensive and 
investigation slack there was much fraud practiced, especially in 
the Chinese varieties. The adulteration consisted chiefly in the 
addition of foreign leaves and in facing. The leaves of the ash, 
beech, willow, rose and buckthorn were frequently mixed with 
those of the tea plant. Substitution of this kind can readily be 
detected with the microscope as tea leaves have a characteristic 
appearance. Facing consisted in treating the leaves with various 
coloring matter, such as Prussian blue, indigo or plumbago. By 
such means leaves which were inferior or had been damaged in 
manufacturing processes or during a sea voyage, could be im- 
proved in color and general appearance. As black tea does not 
need as much care in preparation for the market, attempts were 
also made to face such tea and sell it for green tea. 

Since laws have been passed prohibiting the importation of 
faced tea, there is practically no adulteration to be found in the 
tea sold in the United States. Tea growers are more carefully 
watched, government inspection is more rigid and competition 
is much greater than in the past. For a long period the Chinese 
were the chief exporters to this country, but the rapid growth 
in the popularity of the India and Ceylon teas has forced China 
to send better grades to hold her place in the American market. 

Tea as a Beverage. — The main constituents of tea to be con- 
sidered in the preparation of the beverage are caffein and tannic 
acid. Caffein is the ingredient which gives the stimulating prop- 
erty. It belongs to a class of substances known as alkaloids. 
Just below the boiling point of water it is remarkably soluble. 
Tannic acid is not particularly soluble at the boiling point but 
will become so on prolonged boiling. These two facts must be 
taken into account when preparing the beverage. Caffein is ■ a 
mild stimulant and is desired while tannic acid so far as possible 
should be avoided. 

General Eules for Tea-Making. — Heat freshly drawn water to 
the boiling point. Pour it on the requisite amount of tea, which 
has been placed in a previously scalded pot, made of non-con- 



FOOD INDUSTRIES 287 

ducting material. Allow to stand in contact with the leaves from 
three to five minutes. The spent leaves should not be used again. 
Practically all the stimulating ingredient has been removed and 
that which is left is deleterious to health. Tea should never be 
boiled; the delicate aroma is lost as the essential oils volatilize. 
Boiling also makes soluble the tannin, too much of which is un- 
desirable. 

Composition of the Beverage. — Beside caffein, tannic acid and 
volatile oil, tea contains minute amounts of nitrogenous matter, 
fat, dextrin, fiber and mineral matter. 

COFFEE. 

Historical. — The early history of the cultivation of the coffee 
bean is lost in antiquity, but it is to Arabia that the civilized 
world is indebted for the knowledge of its use as a beverage. 
Tradition gives various tales of the introduction of coffee into 
Arabia, one of which places the original home in the province of 
Caffa, Abyssinia, from which it is supposed to have received its 
name. The Ethiopians were known to have used coffee in very 
early ages, but with that nation it appears to have served as a 
food rather than a beverage. Wherever the origin may have been 
Europeans discovered its use in Arabia during the 15th century. 
Undoubtedly the knowledge of it spread very largely through the 
Arabian merchantmen who added the coffee bean to other orien- 
tal luxuries, and to the Mohammedan pilgrims who flocked an- 
nually to Mecca. Learning to drink coffee while in the "Sacred 
City," these pilgrims carried back with them saddle-bags of the 
coffee bean to all parts of the globe professing the faith of Islam. 

Coffee reached Constantinople in the 16th century and spread 
from there to the countries bordering on the Mediterannean, fin- 
ally being introduced into London, Paris and other European 
cities during the 17th century. 

Originally all of the coffee used in Europe was grown in 
Arabia. As much of it passed through the port of Mocha it was 
known under the name of Mocha coffee. Later coffee was grown 
in the European colonies, in the French West Indies and on the 
island of Java. Its cultivation soon spread to Sumatra, the 



288 



FOOD INDUSTRIES 



Malay Archipelago, Ceylon, the Philippine and Hawaiian Islands 
and in the Western World to Cuba, Porto Rico, Mexico, and parts 
of Central and South America. About 1740 it was planted in 
Brazil where it gradually grew to be so important an industry, 
that at the present time Brazilian plantations produce three- 
quarters of the total supply and that government controls the 
coffee market of the world. 

The Coffee Plant. — The coffee plant is a very beautiful tree 
attaining a native growth of some 18-20 feet, but under culti- 
vation it is rarely allowed .to exceed 4-6 feet in height. This 
dwarfing the plant increases the crop and facilitates picking. 
The leaves are a fresh green color expanding outward and down- 




Fig. 72.— Coffee Bean. 

ward giving a very pleasing appearance. The flowers occurring 
in clusters are white in color and have an odor strongly resem- 
bling jasmine. The flowers and fruit which are frequently called 
"the cherries" are found on the tree at the same time and in all 
seasons, in various stages of development. It is from these 
cherries which turn a dark crimson color on ripening, that the 
coffee bean is obtained. The outer part of the cherry is fleshy 
similar to other fruit, while within are usually two seeds, laid 
face to face, covered by a very delicate membrane known as the 
"silver skin" and an outer straw colored husk called "the parch- 
ment" (Fig. 72). The main processes of manufacture consist in 
freeing the fruit from the pulpy matter and removing the two 
inner skins which surround the seeds. These seeds are in reality 
the unroasted coffee bean of commerce. Occasionally a single 
bean occurs, common to all varieties of coffee, in which case it 



Food industries 289 

is called "pea-berry" and is supposedly of finer quality than 
the split beans. 

Cultivation. — The coffee trees thrive best in rich, well-irri- 
gated soil and in tropical climate where the rainfall exceeds 75 
inches per annum. They are propagated from seeds, which are 
planted directly in the fields or grown in wicker baskets in nur- 
series until 18 inches high, when they are transferred to their 
permanent homes in the open. An absence of frost is essential 
to the growth of the plant and protection from wind and sun is 
commonly given by planting shade trees between the young coffee 
trees. The first crop of any importance is born when the plant 
is from 4 to 5 years old, and with care harvesting may be con- 
tinued at regular seasons for 20 years or more. The fruit is 
ready to be picked when it is dark red in color strongly resemb- 
ling a ripe, red cherry. 

Processes of Manufacture. — Harvesting. — In Arabia the fruit 
is allowed to remain on the tree until it falls off of its own 
accord, but on Brazilian plantations, which are by far the largest 
in the world, the cherries are usually picked by hand. They 
are allowed to fall directly on the ground or on sheets from which 
they are later raked together, and a first rough sorting is given 
before they are packed in bags to be removed to where further 
treatment is given. There a more careful sorting, sifting and 
winnowing take place, and the berries are at once treated with the 
dry or wet method for removal of the pulp. 

Dry Method. — The berries are spread out on drying grounds; 
where they are left exposed to the sun for two or three weeks, 
during which time fermentation takes place and the pulpy mass, 
gradually dries. It can then be removed by pounding in a mortar 
or by passing through a hulling machine. This method is still' 
used in Arabia and to some extent on the modern plantations of 
Brazil, many planters claiming that it has advantages over the- 
modern wet process. 

Wet Method. — Where the wet process is used inclined canal's 
are frequently built, where the cherries can be dumped and 
carried by gravity to the pulping machine. While floating down 
19 



290 



FOOD INDUSTRIES 



imperfect and unripe berries rise to the top and can readily be 
removed, after which the well developed berries are washed with 
fresh water. 

Pulping. — The pulping machines are of various types, but as a 
rule they consist of a revolving cylinder with a rough surface 
which faces a curved metal plate. The berry is crushed between 
the two surfaces in such a manner that the pulp only is separated. 
The interior consisting of the coffee beans with the two coverings 
must not be injured. A separation is made by sifting and all im- 
perfectly pulped must be reprocessed. 




Fig. 73.— Views of Coffee Cultivation and Industry of Brazil. Washing Tanks. 
(Courtesy of The Spice Mill Publishing Co.) 



Fermentation. — The beans are next allowed to ferment for 
twenty-four to seventy-two hours in order to soften and loosen 
any adherent pulp. The essential part of this process is enzyme 
action on the adhesive substance, but as to its effect on the flavor 
of the coffee, no full investigation has as yet been made. 



FOOD INDUSTRIES 29 1 

Washing and Drying. — Successive rinsings with water finally 
leave the parchment covering quite free from adherent pulp. It 
is now known as "parchment coffee" and must be subjected to 
a drying process in order to remove the two inner coats by 
friction. Coffee is dried in most places out-of-doors on the 
ground, during which time it is carefully watched. Too slow 
or too rapid drying greatly injures the flavor of the coffee. 

Peeling. — The two coverings can now be readily loosened by 
an ingenious machine which cracks the parchment and inner skin 
without injuring the beans. The hulls and dust are separated by 
winnowing, leaving the coffee 'beans clean and ready for sorting. 

Sorting and Packing. — In order to secure uniformity the beans 
are separated into six to eight grades. They are sorted first, 
according to size, by sifting through various mesh sieves ; second, 
according to weight by being subjected to strong currents of air 
blowing upward. The coffee is then bagged ready for removal 
to the shipping port, at which place it is frequently blended and 
repacked before shipment. 

As coffee deteriorates after roasting that process is usually 
carried on in the country where it is to be consumed. On arrival 
at the coffee-house the raw bean is subjected to a thorough cleans- 
ing process to remove all foreign matter. 

Roasting. — The cleaned beans are run into a revolving oven 
and are subjected to a temperature of 200 C. In the production 
of a good coffee this is one of the most important steps. Count 
Rumford in an essay published in 1812 says — "Great care must 
be taken in roasting coffee, not to roast it too much ; as soon as it 
has acquired a deep cinnamon color, it should be taken from the 
fire and cooled; otherwise much of its aromatic flavor will be 
dissipated and its taste will become disagreeably bitter. The 
progress of the operation and the moment most proper to put an 
end to it, may be judged and determined with great certainty; 
not only by the changes which take place in the color of the grain 
but also by the peculiar fragrance which will first begin to be 
diffused by it when it is nearly roasted enough. This fragrance 
is certainly owing to the escape of a volatile, aromatic substance 



292 



FOOD INDUSTRIES 



which did not originally exist as such in the grain, but which is 
formed in the process of roasting it." 

When a light cinnamon brown is desired, coffee is allowed to 
remain in the oven for thirty minutes and from thirty-five to 
forty minutes, if a heavy chocolate color is wanted. It is then 
quickly cooled by blasts of cold air and is ready to be bagged or 
boxed for the market (Fig. 74). 

The effect of roasting is both physical and chemical. The 
physical state of the bean is changed to a brittle form, in which 




Fig. 74. — General View of Coffee Roasting Room. (Courtesy of the Spice Mill 
Publishing Co.) 



it can more easily be ground or pulverized. Two very important 
chemical changes also take place; first, the formation of caramel 
which greatly improves the taste — this flavor can readily be 
imitated in the production of coffee substitutes ; second, the pro- 
duction of an oil known as caffeol to which the aroma of roasted 
coffee is due. As this oil is volatile, coffee should be consumed 
as quickly as possible after roasting and should never be pulver- 
ized until the time of the preparation of the beverage. 

During the roasting operation there is also an appreciable 



FOOD INDUSTRIES 293 

amount of the alkaloid caffein which volatilizes, consequently, in 
some of the most improved coffee roasting establishments, the 
vapor developed during the operation is thoroughly cooled for 
the purpose of recovering the caffein. By subjecting coffee to 
a long continued roasting at low temperatures, practically all of 
the caffein present in the bean volatilizes and is recoverable. 
Coffee roasted by this method has been sold in the bean under 
the name of caffein-free coffee. When treated in this manner, 
however, it lacks some of the flavor of the ordinary product. 

Adulteration. — Adulteration of coffee has consisted in the ad- 
dition of foreign matter, the substitution of cheaper substances, 
in facing and glazing. As with tea facing, the addition of color- 
ing matter has been used largely to conceal poor or damaged 
coffee or to make inferior varieties appear as high grade material 
Glazing consists in the addition of graphite, charcoal, ultra-ma- 
rine, Prussian blue, talc, shellac and similar substances for the 
purpose of preventing the loss of aroma. It must be remembered, 
however, that such material adds weight to the coffee. Liebig 
suggested the use of sugar which if added when hot would glaze 
and protect it. In former years an imitation bean was manufac- 
tured and occasionally mixed with coffee, but the price of coffee 
is too low at present to make such substitution profitable. The 
addition of foreign substances was much more practiced with 
ground coffee than that sold in the bean form, since they could 
be less readily detected. Cereals of various kinds, peas, beans, 
acorns and the like have from time to time been added, but the 
chief adulterant has been found to be chicory which is the kiln 
dried root of the wild endive. 

In recent years misbranding has been found more frequently 
than adulteration. The early coffee market drew its supply 
almost entirely from Arabia and from the islands of Java and 
Sumatra. These coffees were known on the market as Mocha 
and Java. As the coffee industry spread, there was a strong 
tendency to label the product from new coffee fields as Mocha 
and Java, since those two names had taken a firm hold in the 
minds of the housewife. The passing of the Food and Drugs 
Act of June 30, 1906, has made this also a misdemeanor. Al- 



294 FOOD INDUSTRIES 

though undoubtedly much coffee is still on the market not prop- 
erly labeled, there is a strong tendency now on the part of the 
manufacturers, as well as the government, to have coffee im- 
ported under its own name. 

Coffee as a Beverage. — One of the most important constituents 
of coffee and the ingredient to which it owes its stimulating 
effect, is the alkaloid caffein. It is the same substance as is 
found in tea but occurs in a rather smaller proportion, approxi- 
mately i to 2 per cent, being found in the unroasted bean. Tannic 
acid is also found with a larger amount of other substances such 
as fat, gum, fiber, sucrose, dextrin, reducing sugar and mineral 
matter. As coffee contains volatile oils, every effort should be 
made to retain them, in the preparation of the beverage, or much 
of the aroma and flavor will be lost. 

Coffee Extracts. — In recent years, products have been found 
on the market called coffee extracts. They consist essentially of 
a coffee solution from which the water has been evaporated in 
vacuo and the resulting mass, dried and ground. When added 
to boiling water they are supposed to have the original consis- 
tency of coffee solution. 

Coffee Substitutes. — See Chapter VI, page 85. 

COCOA. 

Historical. — Cocoa was not known to the European nations until 
after the discovery of the Western World. On his return from 
the third voyage to America, Columbus was supposed to have 
carried back with him to Spain the cocoa bean, as a curiosity from 
the newly discovered land. It was introduced into Europe in 
1528 by Cortez after his conquest of Mexico. The explorer 
found the natives of the new land using the roasted bean, ground 
and mixed with maize meal, moistened with the sweet juice of the 
maize stalk and flavored with vanilla and various spices. It was 
known to them as chocolatl and was considered to be highly 
nutritious as well as a beverage of great delicacy. Evidently 
it was also held in high esteem by the Europeans for the tree 
from which the fruit is obtained, was known to them as "Theo- 
broma, — food for the Gods." Although so highly prized, the use 



FOOD INDUSTRIES 



295 



of cocoa spread very gradually in Europe and it is not until recent 
years, that it has grown considerably in popularity. Possibly 
this is due to the fact that tea is used so extensively in the 
British Isles and coffee in the continental countries. Cocoa was 
first introduced into the States by the fishermen of Gloucester, 
and its use has increased to so great an extent that one-fifth of 
the world's crop is now consumed in the United States. 

Cultivation. — Cocoa is the fruit of a tropical tree commonly 
known as the cocoa tree although it belongs botanically to the 




Fig- 75-— Pods and Reaves. 
(Copyrighted by Walter Baker & Co., and used with their permission.) 

species cacao, the most commonly used being the variety theo- 
broma cacao. Thriving only in tropical climate, 20 both north 
and south of the equator, its cultivation is very limited. Only 
those localities of America and Africa with their neighboring 
islands that have well-watered, well-drained soils and plenty of 
rainfall, can be utilized for the growing of the tree. The West- 
ern World produces by far the largest part of the world's crop, 
Venezuela, Ecuador and Brazil being the largest exporting coun- 
tries. Mexico still produces the greatest amount of cocoa but 
uses most of it for her own consumption. 



296 



FOOD INDUSTRIES 



The cocoa tree is grown from seeds either planted directly in 
the fields or in nurseries. It attains an average height of about 
20-30 feet and bears small, red, wax-like flowers which appear 
either singly or in clusters, along the trunk and main branches of 
the tree. The fruit is a pod some 8-10 inches long, 3-4 inches 
thick (Fig. 75). It is when ripe, either lemon color or chocolate 
brown, according to the variety, and has a thick tough rind en- 
closing a mass of cellular tissue. Embedded in the pulpy matrix 
are .some forty or more cocoa beans which are covered with a 
thin shell greatly resembling an almond (Fig. 76). The beans 




Fig. 76. — Section Cocoa Fruit. 



are arranged in five longitudinal rows. The tree begins to bear 
fruit when four or five years old and continues to the age of 
forty. While blossoms and fruit are to be found on the tree 
at the same time and in all seasons, there are two main crops 
gathered yearly, generally in June and December, although this 
condition varies in different localities. 

Processes of Manufacture. — Picking. — The pods are picked 
when fully ripe, either by hand or with a knife fastened to a 
long, bamboo pole. Great care is necessary that the buds and 
blossoms which lie next the fruit are not injured. 



FOOD INDUSTRIES 297 

Decomposition of Pod. — As the rind of the pods when picked 
is exceedingly woody and tough and would be difficult to cut, 
they are laid on the ground in heaps and allowed to decompose 
for twenty-four hours, or until the rind has become leathery. 
They are then sorted according to the degree of ripeness and 
are cut open with a sharp cutlass. The pulp and cocoa beans 
still within their shell can readily be removed. 

Fermentation. — As a considerable amount of the soft pulp 
still clings to the beans, it is necessary in order to free them, to 
allow fermentation to take place. This process is carried out by 
heaping the beans on the floor where they are allowed to sweat, 
by burying them, or by the use of enclosed sweating boxes where 
they remain for several days. The seeds are frequently turned 
to insure regular sweating, great care being also given to keep 
the temperature from rising too high. Both alcoholic and acetic 
fermentation take place and several important changes occur. 
The germinating power of the seed is arrested; the adherent 
pulp is loosened; color develops and an exceedingly bitter taste 
is modified so the flavor is greatly improved; the beans are less 
liable to be attacked by mold and are in the best form for dry- 
ing. 

Washing and Drying.— When fermentation is complete the 
beans are sometimes washed before drying. Washing is carried 
out by placing them in sieves or troughs, where they are thor- 
oughly scrubbed and rinsed, to remove all pulpy matter that 
may be clinging to them. Whether they are washed or not, the 
cocoa bean must pass through a drying process. This is accom- 
plished by the heat of the sun, whenever possible, or in drying 
houses which are heated by artificial means. In out-of-door 
drying some ten days or more are required, indoor drying is 
complete in less time. In some countries coloring matter is used 
and the practice of polishing the bean after drying is frequently 
performed. The cocoa is now ready to be bagged and shipped 
to the markets of the world. 

When received by the manufacturer cocoa is cleaned, sorted 
and roasted. 



298 



FOOD INDUSTRIES 



Roasting. — As in the case of coffee, this process must be care- 
fully guarded to insure the development of the desired flavor; 
too much heat means bitterness and too little leaves the cocoa 
with a crude undeveloped taste. The process is usually carried 
out in large iron drums, heated to I25°-I45° C. and con- 
stantly kept in motion. During the roasting the thin husks of 
the seeds become brittle and are so loosened, that afterwards they 
can easily be removed ; the aroma is increased ; the bitter taste 
is still further modified and the starch is partially dextrinized. 
When sufficiently roasted cocoa is quickly cooled in order to 
prevent the loss of the aroma. 




Fig. 77. — Grinding Room. 
(Copyrighted by Walter Baker & Co. and used with their permission.) 



Crushing. — The roasted seeds are next run through a machine 
called the cracker. This frees the outer shell from the inner 
parts which are known as cocoa nibs. A separation of shells, 
nibs and germs is effected by sieves and a machine of special 
device. As the shells retain the flavor they are sold and used 
for the preparation of a cheap beverage. The nutritive value is 



FOOD INDUSTRIES 299 

not great but they make a satisfactory drink for people of weak 
digestion. The cocoa nibs are used for the preparation of the 
commercial chocolate and cocoa. 

Preparation of Chocolate. — The cocoa nibs are ground into a 
paste by a series of revolving stones, arranged in pairs and 
slightly heated to assist in liquefying the cocoa. While in a semi- 
fluid condition, the paste is moulded into cakes and allowed to 
harden. It may be sold in this form as plain chocolate or the 
ground nibs may be passed into a mixer and finely ground sugar, 
spices, vanilla and other flavors may be incorporated. After 
moulding, the product is placed on the market as sweet chocolate 
or as milk chocolate, if condensed or powdered milk has also been 
added. 

Preparation of Cocoa. — As the cocoa nib is too rich in fat for 
ordinary purposes, sometimes approximately one-half of the total 
weight, it is customary to remove a portion of it. The product 
is then known as cocoa. In the United States this is chiefly car- 
ried on by running the ground nibs, while in the semi-liquid 
form, directly from the grinder into an hydraulic press, which 
removes some 60-70 per cent, of the fat. The mass is then allowed 
to cool after which it is reduced to a powder and boxed. Foreign 
manufacturers remove further amounts of fat from cocoa by 
treatment with a watery alkali after which it is thoroughly 
washed and neutralized. The use of alkali is generally defended 
on the plea that it makes cocoa soluble but this statement is not 
borne out by the facts. No market cocoa or chocolate is com- 
pletely soluble but owing to the fine state of division of the 
particles, it does not readily settle in the hot, thick liquid. Ameri- 
can manufacturers do not generally favor this process. The ex- 
tracted fat is clarified and made into cocoa-butter. As cocoa- 
butter does not readily turn rancid if carefully stored, it is used 
largely in pharmacy, for candy-making and in the preparation 
of cosmetics, perfumes, pomades and soft toilet soaps. 

Adulteration. — Cocoa preparations have been much subject to 
adulteration. In order to increase the bulk and weight, sugar 
and various starches have been frequently added, while sand, 



300 FOOD INDUSTRIES 

clay, the ground shells of the cocoa-bean, powdered roasted 
acorns, chestnuts and other substances of organic and inorganic 
origin have, from time to time, been found. Fats of cheaper 
variety, such as lard or coconut oil, are used to restore the normal 
percentage of fat after cocoa-butter has been removed. In 
cheaper grades of chocolate, glucose is sometimes used in place 
of sugar, while inferior flavorings and coloring matter are fre- 
quently added. 

As a Beverage. — Cocoa not only furnishes the material for a 
refreshing and exhilarating beverage, but is a food of great 
nutritive value. This may readily be seen by the average com- 
position of the cocoa bean as given by Payen. 

Fat '.'..' 50 

Starch 10 

Protein 20 

Water 12 

Cellulose 2 

Mineral matter 4 

Theobromine 2 

Theobromine which is responsible for the stimulating effect of 
cocoa is closely related chemically to the alkaloid caffein, which 
occurs in tea and coffee and has a similar physiological effect. 
The presence of so high a percentage of fat, protein and car- 
bohydrate not only makes cocoa of greater nutritive value than 
tea or coffee, but both soluble and insoluble portions become a 
part of the beverage. This is not true of tea or coffee where 
only the constituents soluble in hot water are obtained. 

As chocolate is a concentrated food it frequently causes bili- 
ousness when indulged in too freely. 

Physiological Effect of Tea, Coffee and Cocoa. — The stimulating 
effect of tea and coffee is due to the presence of caffein a pow- 
erful drug which acts on the nervous system. The excessive use 
of these beverages frequently results in nervousness, insomnia, 
headache and indigestion ; disturbances of other organs may fol- 
low. A limited use appears, however, to be harmless or may 
even be beneficial to some people but they should never be given 
to young children. Cocoa and chocolate contain a substance 
similar to the caffein of tea and coffee, but is milder in its effects. 



CHAPTER XXII. 



SPICES AND CONDIMENTS. 

The terms condiments and spices are applied to products which 
possess no nutritive value, but are added to food to make it more 
palatable and to stimulate digestion. They may be either organic 
or inorganic. The words are confusing for the reason that many 
of the bodies included under these headings are similar in chemi- 
cal composition but all do not belong to the same series of 
chemical compounds. Actually, the terms as employed describe 
conditions of usage rather than composition. The word condi- 
ment describes material which is used commonly in the daily diet 
and covers all varieties of foods while spices are not so commonly 
employed, being restricted largely to pastry, puddings, cakes and 
the like. Condiments are represented by salt, pepper, mustard 
and vinegar; spices, by cinnamon, nutmeg, ginger, etc. 

CONDIMENTS. 

Sodium Chloride. — Sodium chloride or common salt, the most 
necessary to man and used to the largest extent, is inorganic. It 
appears to be the one item of food found in the diet of all nations 
and every race from the earliest times, the chlorine being utilized 
by the system in the formation of hydrochloric acid of the gastric 
juice, while the sodium is needed in the production of the bile. 
Its use is particularly important among people whose diet consists 
largely of vegetables and vegetable products. 

Salt is procured from natural deposits of sodium chloride in 
the form of solid crystals, from natural or artificial brine wells 
and from the sea by the process of evaporation. Formerly much 
of our salt came from the Bahama Islands. These islands are 
of coral origin and possess comparatively little vegetation. Small 
pools can be found in many places where the sun in time evap- 
orates the water, leaving a deposit of salt which could be sent to 
the market. The product was known as Turks Island Brand. 
Natural brine wells are underground streams which may be the 
result of sweet water percolating through salt soil, or they may 
have come from a body of salt water. Artificial brine wells have 



302 FOOD INDUSTRIES 

been made by man by running water into a salt deposit. The 
brine may then be pumped to the surface which is an easier 
method of obtaining the salt than by digging. 

A large part of the salt on the American market to-day comes 
from natural brine wells in the vicinity of Syracuse, New York, 
and along the borders of Lake Erie. They were discovered as 
early as 1654 by the French Jesuits, who found the Iroquois and 
other Indian tribes making use of the salt. Michigan in the 
southern part, Ohio and Kansas are also rich in saline deposits, 
and much is procured from Utah on the shores of Great Salt 
Lake. 

The process of preparing salt for the market necessarily differs 
according to its source. Where natural deposits occur salt is 
mined by sinking a shaft and working similar to a coal mine. 
The salt can be sent to the market just as it is mined, under the 
name of rock-salt or it can be ground and screened. When salt 
has been obtained by evaporation from the ocean or other body 
of salt water it is usually quite impure so must be washed and 
recrystallized. The method used to the greatest extent to-day, 
consists in evaporating brine obtained from salt beds. The brine 
is generally purified by concentrating until the less soluble con- 
stituents, such as calcium sulphate, crystallize when .they can 
readily be removed. The brine is then concentrated in pans either 
by the sun's rays, direct heat or exhaust steam and sometimes in 
vacuo. However obtained the crystals are drained, dried, sifted 
into grades and packed. 

Pepper. — Various spices can be found on the market under 
the general head of pepper, but the most common forms are black 
and white pepper. Pepper is one of the oldest spices known to 
mankind and is still used in enormous quantities. Although it now 
sells at so low a price that it may be utilized by comparatively 
poor people, it was worth its weight in gold during the days of 
the Roman Empire. The high price in the Middle Ages led the 
Portuguese to seek a water route to the far east, and the first 
vessel that sailed around the Cape of Good Hope had for its 
object the finding of a cheaper way to procure pepper. 

The black variety is prepared from the dried, unripe berry 



FOOD INDUSTRIES 



303 



of a vine which was grown first in Southern India, the East 
Indies, Siam, Cochin China and in later ages in the West Indies. 
For a long period the Dutch nation controlled the trade and tried 
to confine its cultivation to the Island of Java and other Dutch 
possessions. 

The berry is gathered before it is fully matured, is spread out 
on mats for several days, after which the outer skin is removed 
by rubbing with the hand. It is then cleaned by sifting and is 




Fig 78.— Pepper Plantation near Singapore. (Courtesy of The Spice Mill Publishing Co.) 



usually ground before being placed on the market. White pepper 
is generally supposed to be produced from a different spice but 
is in reality the same fruit, prepared by a different method. This 
variety is obtained by decorticating or removing the dark skin 
from the fully ripened black peppercorn, leaving a light colored 
kernel which is pulverized, and forms the white pepper of com- 
merce. White pepper is more expensive but has a more delicate 
flavor than the whole pepper ground. 

There are several varieties of red peppers, the cayennes which 
have a sharp, acrid taste and the paprikas which are sweet and 



304 FOOD INDUSTRIES 

mild. Paprika is used in cooking for its color as well as flavor. 
It is rapidly finding favor among American housewives. 

Mustard. — The mustard most commonly used is obtained by 
grinding to a flour the small seeds of the mustard plant. The 
plant which may be found either in the wild state or under cul- 
tivation has a wide distribution in Europe, northern Africa,, 
Asia, the United States, the West Indies and South America. 
It has been used for medicinal purposes from remote antiquity, 
but appears to have been unknown as a condiment until 1829, 
when a resident of Durham, England, placed it upon the market, 
keeping the manufacturing process a secret. The product was 
given the name of Durham Mustard, a brand which is still found 
in the markets. 

The two most common varieties of seeds used at the present are 
brown and yellow in color, the brown yielding the highest grade 
product. Mustard is prepared by passing the interior of the 
seed through a winnowing machine, for the removal of foreign 
material and crushing the grain between rollers, after which the 
oil is removed by hydraulic pressure. The cake is then dried, 
powdered and bottled. The powder is frequently mixed with 
spices and oil when it is known as prepared mustard. Much 
adulteration has been practiced in the preparation of mustard, 
principally in the addition of wheat flour, cayenne pepper, etc. 

Curry Powder. — Curry or curre powder is a very highly 
seasoned condiment which has been used for many generations 
in East India but has come into favor in the Western World 
only in recent years. It consists chiefly of ground turmeric roots 
highly flavored with cayenne pepper, ginger, and similar pungent 
spices. Curry is usually applied to cooked dishes just before 
serving. 

Vinegar. — Vinegar is used very largely in connection with food, 
the same as spices, to give flavor and as a preservative. Such 
articles as pickles depend largely upon vinegar for their keeping 
quality. It does not contain antiseptics as do the spices, but 
owes its preservative value to the acetic acid which inhibits the 
growth of putrefactive bacteria. 



FOOD INDUSTRIES 305 

The manufacture of vinegar has been treated under the Fer- 
mentation Industries. See Chapter XIII. 

SPICES. 

Spices comprise all aromatic vegetable substances which may 
be added to food, principally to make it more palatable. They 
have been used from the earliest known eras of civilization and 
have played an important part in the discovery of a water pas- 
sage to the far east, in the colonization of the East Indies, and 
in the opening up of these countries to western civilization and 
to western trade. 

The tropical parts of Asia have given to the world by far the 
greatest variety and quantity of spices, such as pepper, cinna- 
mon, nutmeg, mace, cloves, turmeric, ginger and cassia. The 
tropical countries of America have added several new varieties to 
the list, cayenne pepper being the most important. The West 
Indies is celebrated for ginger and is also the home of the pi- 
mento. From Africa, grains of Paradise are obtained. 

All spice plants are grown in tropical climates, latitude 25 ° N. 
and 25 ° S. of the equator, where there is considerable rainfall 
and soil with water absorbing properties. Most of' these flavoring 
plants are found on islands in close proximity to the sea. Spices 
are obtained from different parts of the plant; dried fruit as 
pepper, pimento, nutmeg, mace; dried bark as cinnamon and 
cassia; flower buds as cloves; the root as ginger; seeds as cara- 
way; leaves as sage, thyme, etc. Many of these owe their power 
to essential oils which in some cases are extracted and used as 
flavoring extracts. The flavor of others is due to esters and to 
alkaloids. 

Uses. — While the principal use of spices is to add flavor to 
food and beverages this is by no means their only service to man. 
Many are used in perfumery, in soap making and in the manu- 
facture of incense. Several varieties are utilized in medicine 
chiefly to disguise a disagreeable flavor; turmeric is used in dye- 
ing and others in the various arts. In Egyptian days they were 
utilized for embalming all the distinguished dead. 

While spices have been used from early ages in connection 
20 



306 FOOD INDUSTRIES 

with food for the sake of the various flavors that they yield, 
it has been left to modern science to discover, that they also assist 
in the preservation of the material to which they have been 
added. This is due to the fact that they contain antiseptic prin- 
ciples. 

Spices as Preservatives. — That spices are useful as preservatives 
may readily be detected with such food products as sausages 
and mince meat. Mince meat as a rule has for its chief con- 
stituents chopped meat and apples. Meat is subject to decay by 
bacterial action and apples furnish an excellent food for mold 
and yeast, yet it is a well known fact that mince meat will keep 
for many months. Sausage meat is subject to rapid putrefaction 
but in winter weather, it can be kept for a length of time on 
account of the high content of spices. Fruit cake furnishes 
another example, as it can be held for an indefinite period and 
even improves with age. Spices do not furnish a complete pro- 
tection, however, and food material to which they have been 
added should not be allowed to stand in a warm place or fermen- 
tation and decay will set in. 

Although these facts have been common knowledge for many 
years, very little experimental work has been done, as to the 
varieties which contain the best antiseptic properties and the 
amount which should be used. Unfortunately many of them 
are irritating to the mucous membrane, and when used in excess 
are harmful. It is very important therefore that the manu- 
facturer and housewife should know which spices may be used 
for their antiseptic properties and what the physiological effect 
is of such condiments. To the experimental work of Conrad 
Hoffman and Alice Evans, the authors are indebted for the fol- 
lowing information.* 

That ginger, black pepper and cayenne pepper do not prevent 
the growth of micro-organisms but that cinnamon, cloves and 
mustard are valuable preservatives. Nutmeg and allspice delay 
growth but cannot be considered of any practical importance, since 
the amount used in cooking is too small to preserve food for any 

* The Use of Spices as Preservatives, by Conrad Hoffman & Alice Evans. Published 
in Journal of Industrial & Engineering Chemistry. 



FOOD INDUSTRIES 



307 



length of time. Cinnamon, cloves and mustard are almost equal 
in their efficiency. Cloves when used in large enough amounts 
to prevent growth have a burning taste to the palate, but cinnamon 
and mustard are particularly valuable as they are palatable even 
when used in proportions that prevent all growth. The active 
antiseptic constituents of mustard, cinnamon and cloves are their 
aromatic or essential oils. Cinnamon contains cinnamic aldehyde 
which is more effective if pure than benzoate of soda. 

Commonly Used Spices. — Cinnamon and Cassia. — Cinnamon is 




Fig. 79. —Rolling Cinnamon Bark into Quills. (Courtesy of the Spice Mill Publishing Co.) 

the inner bark of young shoots of certain species of cinnamon 
tree, which is particularly rich in a volatile oil known as oil of 
cinnamon. It is apparently one of the oldest of the spices used 
by man and was the first sought after in the oriental voyages of 
the early merchantmen. The shoots are cut very carefully from 
the tree, the bark is slit longitudinally and removed in strips by 
special knives. The strips are piled in heaps and allowed to fer- 



308 FOOD INDUSTRIES 

ment, after which the epidermis is removed. The bark shrinks 
on drying and is known as "the quills." When put up in bundles 
they are ready for exportation (Fig. 79). Cinnamon contains an 
essential oil which consists largely of cinnamic aldehyde. A syn- 
thetic cinnamic aldehyde, prepared from coal tar, is frequently 
used in flavoring extracts to replace the genuine oil. 

Cassia in olden times was obtained entirely from the bark of 
other varieties of cinnamon trees. It was thick, comparatively 
coarse and was generally considered inferior to cinnamon. 
Much of the cassia of to-day, however, is obtained from China 
and the Dutch West Indies, from the fragrant bark of a plant 
known as the cassia. It has a much more pronounced flavor than 
cinnamon and is frequently used as an adulterant. 

Cloves. — Cloves are the unopened flower buds of an exceed- 
ingly beautiful evergreen tree, which grows mainly in the Spice 
Islands. They were known to the ancients and were considered 
an important article of trade in the Middle Ages. The curing 
process is very simple. After picking, the buds are thrown on 
the ground on grass mats and are allowed to dry in the sun, care 
being taken to shelter them from the dew at night. In about one 
week, they are ready to be packed for export. Cloves contain 
about 16 per cent, of a volatile oil, which can easily be removed 
and is of considerable value. It consists largely of a substance 
known as eugenol. The oil is used largely in perfumery and in 
soaps (Fig. 80). 

Allspice. — Allspice, known to the Spaniards as pimento, is the 
dried, unripe fruit of an evergreen tree native to the West Indies. 
Mexico and South America. The chief supply conies from 
Jamaica. The name allspice has been given on account of the 
fact that its very fragrant odor and flavor appears to be a com- 
bination of those obtained from cinnamon, cloves and nutmeg. 
The fruit is picked before it is ripe, dried in the sun and 
usually ground on common burr-stones. It is used frequently 
for medicinal purposes to disguise the taste of nauseous drugs, 
and in the tanning of some kinds of leather. Allspice yields ? 
volatile oil on distillation which is used as a flavoring in alcoholic 
solutions. 



FOOD INDUSTRIES 



309 




Fig. 80.— Clove Tree of Zanzibar. (Courtesy of The Spice Mill Publishing Co.) 



3io 



FOOD INDUSTRIES 



Nutmeg and Mace. — Nutmeg is the dried kernel of the fruit 
of a tropical tree somewhat resembling an orange tree. It is 
native to the Malay Archipelago, but is also grown largely in 
Asia, Africa, South America and the -West Indies. The fruit is 
gathered when fully ripe and the outer part is discarded. The 
seeds are then dried in the sun or by artificial means. When the 
thin outer seed coat is broken, the kernel or nutmeg is removed, 
cleaned and packed. Nutmegs are exported in the unground 
state in order to retain the flavor, and usually lime coated for 
preservation. The inner envelope which surrounds the nut is 
also dried, and exported under the name of mace. 

Ginger. — Ginger is the only spice taken from the root. The 
original home of the plant is supposed to be China, but it is now 




Fig. 81. — Digging and Peeling Ginger in the Fields — Ginger Plantation, Jamaica. 
(Courtesy of The Spice Mill Publishing Co.) 



grown in many tropical countries. The West Indies produce an 
excellent quality, that from Jamaica usually being considered the 
best. The root may be left unpeeled when it is simply dried in 
the sun or it may be peeled after having been scalded. Preserved 



FOOD INDUSTRIES 31 1 

ginger is prepared very largely in China, especially Canton. 
After being peeled, the ginger is treated with a boiling solution 
of sugar, after which it is packed in jars or sent to the market 
in the dry state (Fig. 81). 

Adulteration. — In former years, no article connected with our 
food supply was more largely subject to adulteration than spices, 
especially when they were placed on the market in the ground 
condition. Spices of a good quality were usually high in price, 
and many cheap materials could be found which to some extent 
resembled the real article. They were used frequently as dil- 
uents and to some extent as complete substitutes. According to 
Bulletin 13 of the United States Department of Agriculture, a 
profitable business for many years was carried on in the manufac- 
ture of products known as spice mixtures. They consisted of a 
combination of various materials, such as ground cocoanut shells, 
wheat flour, crackers, charcoal, coloring and mineral matter, yel- 
low cornmeal, mustard, husks, sawdust and other odds and ends. 

Much misbranding has also been found especially among flav- 
oring extracts. 

Vanilla and Lemon Extracts. — Vanilla is obtained from the 
fruit of a climbing orchid, native of tropical America, but now 
grown in Java, Ceylon and other parts of the Orient. It was used 
by the Aztecs as a flavoring agent for their favorite beverage 
chocolate, before the discovery of America, and was taken to 
Europe by the explorers as early as 15 10. The fruit is a pod 
which must be dried and cured with great care in order to obtain 
the desired flavor. The characteristic odor is developed during 
the process of fermentation which takes place while drying. The 
aroma and flavor are due to a substance known as vanillin which 
gradually crystallizes from the fluid of the pod. The well cured 
pods, either whole or powdered, may be found on the market as 
the vanilla bean or powder, but a more common form is the ex- 
tract of vanilla. 

Modern science has furnished a commercial rival to vanilla 
extract in the production of a synthetic product. Vanillin has been 
largely prepared from eugenol, a substance to which oil of cloves. 



312 FOOD INDUSTRIES 

owes its characteristic odor, and in recent years much has also 
been obtained electrolytically from sugar. 

In the preparation of vanilla extract the flavor is obtained from 
the bean by a mixture of alcohol and water as the resins in the 
bean will not impart their flavor to either alcohol or water alone. 
(From 40-60 per cent, alcohol is the strength used according to 
the character of the bean.) The method of extraction is prefer- 
ably that of percolation. At least 13.35 oz - °f extracted matter 
in one gallon of the finished product is required by the United 
States Department of Agriculture. The best vanilla extracts are 
kept from six months to two years in white oak casks or vats in 
order to have them acquire a fine dainty bouquet which cannot 
be obtained by any other known process. Storage, however, 
raises the cost of the product 12-15 P er cent, owing to losses from 
evaporation and interest on the money invested and to insurance 
rates. The partly extracted beans are dried, ground and used in 
the powdered state by ice cream manufacturers. 

Lemon extract contains at least 5 per cent, by volume of lemon 
oil in alcohol of proper strength. The lemon oil industry has 
been carried on largely in Sicily. A very small quantity is pre- 
pared in the West Indies and experimental quantities in Cali- 
fornia, but the Sicilian lemons have so much finer bouquet and 
flavor that 99 per cent, used in this country comes from that 
section. In the best extracts 8 per cent, of the oil is used, the 
maximum amount that can be held in solution by 95 per cent, 
alcohol. A higher percentage would become cloudy if sub- 
jected to changes in temperature especially cold, and would ap- 
pear unsightly although the product would be in no way in- 
jured. Alcohol is necessary in the manufacture of lemon ex- 
tract not only to hold the oil in permanent solution, but to pro- 
tect it from the action of oxygen, since that element combines 
chemically with certain constituents of the oil known as ter- 
penes, resulting in a turpentine-like odor and a bitter, disagree- 
able taste. Fresh lemons are frequently added to give a fine 
aroma and zest to the oil. 

Much adulteration, substitution and misbranding has been 
practiced with vanilla and lemon extracts. In the former an 



FOOD INDUSTRIES 313 

extract made from the tonka bean, the active principle of which 
is coumarin, is frequently used in inferior extracts to replace 
the more expensive vanilla. Imitation products from oil of 
cloves have also been largely employed. Such extracts have a 
strong pungent odor which will not volatilize in cooking as 
quickly as the genuine vanilla. They are often used for flavor- 
ing the ice cream and cakes on the market. Coloring matter and a 
low alcoholic strength are frequently found in both vanilla and 
lemon extracts. In the later imitation lemon prepared from 
lemon grass oil and citric acid have been much used. 

The flavoring extract business to a large extent passed into 
the hands of unscrupulous men, mail-order and premium-giving 
houses who put most inferior goods upon the market. As a 
result the Flavoring Extract Manufacturers Association of the 
United States was organized the object of which is to do away 
with all evil practices, to place the industry on a firmer basis and 
to secure uniform Pure Food Laws in the various states, which 
will be in accordance with those adopted by the National Gov- 
ernment. 



BIBLIOGRAPHY. 



CHAPTER I.— FOOD PRINCIPLES. 
Sherman, Henry C. — Chemistry of Foods and Nutrition. 
Jordan, Whitman H. — Principles of Human Nutrition. 
Vulte, H. T. — Household Chemistry. 
Perkin and Kipping. — Organic Chemistry. 
Thorpe. — Dictionary of Applied Chemistry. 
Haas and Hill.— An Introduction to the Chemistry of Plant Products. 

CHAPTER II.— WATER. 

Mason, William P.— Our Water Supply. 
Woodman and Norton.— Air, Water and Food. 
Leffmann, Henry. — Examination of Water. 
Frankland, E. — Water Analysis. 
Wanklyn and Chapman. — Water Analysis. 
Harrington, Charles. — Practical Hygiene. 
Thorpe.— Dictionary of Applied Chemistry. 
Buchanan, E. D. and R. E. — Household Bacteriology. 
Schultz, Carl H.— Mineral Waters. 

CHAPTER III.— CEREALS. 

Burtt-Davy, Joseph. — Maize : Its History, Cultivation, Handling and Uses. 

Freeman and Chandler. — The World's Commercial Products. 

Sherman, Henry C. — Food Products. 

Bailey, E. H. S. — The Source, Chemistry and Use of Food Products. 

Harrington, Charles. — Practical Hygiene. 

Wiley, Harvey W. — Foods and Their Adulteration. 

Ward, Artemas. — The Grocers Encyclopedia. 

Bulletin No. 131, Agricultural Experiment Station, Orono, Maine. — Indian 

Corn as Food for Man. 
Farmers Bulletin No. 417, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, 

D. C— Rice Culture. 
Farmers Bulletin No. 45, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, 

D. C. — Some Insects Injurious to Stored Grain. 
Farmers Bulletin No. 565, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, 

D. C. — Cornmeal as a Food and Ways of Using It. 
Encyclopedias. — Britannica, International. 

CHAPTERS IV AND V.— OLD AND MODERN 
MILLING PROCESSES. 
Dondlinger, Peter Tracy. — The Book of Wheat. 
Smith, Rollin E— Wheat Fields and Markets of the World. 



FOOD INDUSTRIES 315 

Edgar, William C. — Story of a Grain of Wheat 

Amos, Percy A. — Processes of Flour Manufacture. 

Grant, James. — The Chemistry of Breadmaking. 

Wiley, Harvey W. — Foods and Their Adulteration. 

Bulletin No. 57, Agricultural Experiment Station, Ottawa, Canada. — 

Quality in Wheat. 
Trade Paper. — The Northwestern Miller, Chicago, 111. 
Encyclopedias. — Britannica, International. 

CHAPTER VI.— BREAKFAST FOODS. 

Bulletin No. 118, Agricultural Experiment Station, Orono, Maine. — Cereal 
Foods. 

Bulletin No. 13, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Chemistry — 
Cereals and Cereal Products. 

Bulletin No. 65, Agricultural Experiment Station, Orono, Maine. — Coffee 
Substitutes. 

Bulletin No. 211, State Agricultural College Experiment Station, Michi- 
gan. — -Breakfast Foods. 

Bulletin No. 162, Dept. of Agriculture, Ontario Agricultural College, 
Ontario, Canada. — Breakfast Foods. 

Farmers Bulletin No. 249, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, 
D. C. — Cereal Breakfast Foods. 

CHAPTER VII.— UTILIZATION OF FLOUR. 
Jago, W. and W. C. — Technology of Breadmaking. 
Simmons. — Book of Bread. 

Grant, James. — The chemistry of Breadmaking. 
Buchanan, E. D. and R. E. — Household Bacteriology. 
Conn, H. W. — Bacteria, Yeasts and Molds in the Home. 
Jordan, E. O. — General Bacteriology. 
Farmers Bulletin No. 389, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, 

D. C. — Bread and Breadmaking. 
The National Geographic Magazine, March, 1908. — Making Bread in 

Different Parts of the World. 
Trade Paper. — The Baker's Review. New York City. 

CHAPTER VIII.— LEAVENING AGENTS. 
Hart, Richard N. — Leavening Agents. 
Thorpe. — Dictionary of Applied Chemistry. 
Smith, Alexander. — General Inorganic Chemistry. 
Harrington, Charles. — Practical Hygiene. 

Bulletin No. 13, Part Fifth, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Division 
of Chemistry. — Baking Powders. 



316 FOOD INDUSTRIES 

Bulletin No. 52, Agricultural Experiment Station, Florida. — Baking 

Powders. 
Bulletin No. 103, U. S. Department of Agriculture.— Alum in Foods. 

CHAPTER IX.— STARCH AND ALLIED INDUSTRIES. 

Sadtler, Samuel. — Handbook of Industrial Organic Chemistry. 

Thorp, Frank H. — Outlines of Industrial Chemistry. 

Thorpe. — Dictionary of Applied Chemistry. 

Olsen, John C. — Pure Foods. 

Humphrey, H. C. — Descriptive Paper — The Corn Products Refining 

Industry. 
Bulletin No. 202, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. — ■ 

Digestibility of Starch of Different Sorts as Affected by Cooking. 

CHAPTER X.— THE SUGAR INDUSTRY. 
Geerlings, H. C. Prinsen. — The World's Cane Sugar Industry, Past and 

Present. 
Sadtler, Samuel P. — Handbook of Industrial Organic Chemistry. 
Thorp, Frank H. — Outlines of Industrial Chemistry. 
Thorpe. — Dictionary of Applied Chemistry. 
Wiley, Harvey W. — Foods and Their Adulteration. 
Deerr, Noel. — Sugar and the Sugar Cane. 
Deerr, Noel. — Cane Sugar Manufacture. 

International Library of Technology. — Manufacture of Sugar. 
The School of Mines Quarterly, Columbia University, April, 191 1. — The 

Chemistry of Raw Sugar Production; Sugar Refining. 
The School of Mines Quarterly, Columbia University, January, 1913. — 

Manufacture of Raw Sugar in the Philippine and Hawaiian Islands. 
The School of Mines Quarterly, Columbia University, July, 1913. — 

By-Products of Sugar Manufacture, and Methods for Their Utili- 
zation. 
Farmers Bulletin, No. 52, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, 

D. C— The Sugar Beet. 
Report of the Eighth International Congress of Applied Chemistry, Vol. 

27-29. — The Status of Cane Sugar and Manufacture in the 

Hawaiian Islands. 
Trade Paper. — Sugar, Chicago, 111. 

CHAPTER XL— FRUITS, VEGETABLES AND NUTS. 
Ward, Artemas. — The Grocers Encyclopedia. 
Wiley, Harvey W. — Foods and Their Adulteration. 
Sherman, Henry. — Food Products. 
Bailey, E. H. S. — The Source, Chemistry and Use of Food Products. 



FOOD INDUSTRIES 317 

Fisher and Fisk. — How to Live. 

Bulletin by C. F. Langworthy. — Green Vegetables and Their Use in the 

Diet. 
Bulletin by C. F. Langworthy. — Raisins, Figs and Other Dried Fruits and 

Their Uses. 
Bulletin, University of Illinois, Department of Household Science. — Prin- 
ciples of Jelly Making. 
Bulletin No. 172, The Agricultural Experiment Station, Fort Collins, 

Colo. — Garden Notes. 
Farmers Bulletin, No. 121, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, 

D. C. — Beans, Peas and Other Legumes as Food. 
Farmers Bulletin No. 256, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, 

D. C. — Preparation of Vegetables for the Table. 
Farmers Bulletin, No. 295, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, 

D. C. — Potatoes and Other Root Crops as Food. 
Farmers Bulletin, No. 324, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, 

D. C. — Sweet Potatoes. 
Farmers Bulletin, No. 433, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, 

D. C— Cabbage. 
Farmers Bulletin, No. 282, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, 

D. C. — Celery. 
Farmers Bulletin, No. 220, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, 

D. C. — Tomatoes. 
Farmers Bulletin, No. 293, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, 

D. C. — Use of Fruit as Food. 
Farmers Bulletin, No. 203, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, 

D. C. — Canned Fruit, Preserves and Jellies. 
Farmers Bulletin, No. 332, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, 

D. C. — Nuts and Their Use as Food. 
Trade Paper. — Green's Fruit Grower. 

CHAPTERS XII AND XIII.— ALCOHOLIC BEVERAGES. 
Thorpe. — Dictionary of Applied Chemistry. 
Sadtler, Samuel. — Handbook of Industrial Organic Chemistry. 
Thorp, Frank H. — Outlines of Industrial Chemistry. 
Harrington, Charles. — Practical Hygiene. 
Accum, Frederick. — A Treatise of Adulteration of Food and Culinary 

Poisons. 
Fisher and Fisk. — How to Live. 

Buchanan, E. D. and R. E. — Household Bacteriology. 
Conn, H. W. — Bacteria, Yeasts and Molds in the Home. 
Fowler, G. J. — Bacteriological and Enzyme Chemistry. 
Osborn's Annual Guide, December, 1903. — Vintage and Production of 

Wines and Liquor. 



318 FOOD INDUSTRIES 

Bulletin No. 13, Part Third, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Division 

of Chemistry.- — Fermented Alcoholic Beverages. 
Bulletin No. 239, Agricultural Experiment Station, Ottawa, Canada. 
Trade Paper. — The American Brewer. 

CHAPTER XIV.— FATS. 
Sadtler, Samuel P. — Handbook of Industrial Organic Chemistry. 
Thorp, Frank H. — Outlines of Industrial Chemistry. 
Thorpe. — Dictionary of Applied Chemistry. 
Wing, Henry W. — Milk and Its Products. 

Bailey, E. H. S. — The Source, Chemistry and Use of Food Products. 
Sherman, H. C. — Food Products. 
Lewkowitsch. — Chemical Technology and Analysis of Oils, Fats and 

Waxes. 
Ward, Artemas. — The Grocers Encyclopedia. 
Leffmann and Beam. — Food Analysis. 
Wiley, Harvey W. — Foods and Their Adulterations. 
International Library of Technology. — Cottonseed Oil and Products. 
Bulletin No. 13, Part First, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Division 

of Chemistry. — Dairy Products. 
Bulletin No. 163, Agricultural Experiment Station, Fort Collins, Colo.— 

Farm Butter Making. 
Farmers Bulletin, No. 241, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, 

D. C. — Butter Making on the Farm. 
Farmers Bulletin, No. 131, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, 

D. C. — Household Tests for the Detection of Oleomargarine and 

Renovated Butter. 

CHAPTER XV.— ANIMAL FOODS. 
Sherman, Henry C. — Food Products. 
Wiley, Harvey W. — Foods and Their Adulterations. 
Harrington, Charles. — Practical Hygiene. 
Hutchison, Robert. — Foods and Dietetics. 
Jordan, Whitman H. — Principles of Human Nutrition. 
Wilder, F. W. — The Modern Packing House. 
Ward, Artemas. — The Grocers Encyclopedia. 
The National Geographic Magazine, March, 1913. — Oysters : The World's 

, Most Valuable Water Crop. 
Bulletin No. 114, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Chemistry. — 

Meat Extracts and Similar Preparations. 
Bulletin No. 13, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Chemistry. — 

Preserved Meats. 
Farmers Bulletin, No. 391, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, 

D. C. — Economical LTse of Meat in the Home. 



FOOD INDUSTRIES 319 

Farmers Bulletin, No. 183, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, 

D. C— Meat on the Farm. 
Farmers Bulletin, No. 85, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, 

D. C. — Fish as Food. 
Farmers Bulletin, No. 128, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, 

D. C. — Eggs and Their Uses as Food. 

CHAPTER XVI.— THE PACKING HOUSE. 
Wilder, F. W— The Modern Packing House. 

International Library of Technology. — Packing House Industries. 
The Chemical Engineer, December, 1906. — Chemical Engineering in the 
Packing House. 

Morris & Co. — The Pictorial History of a Steer. 
Wiley, Harvey W. — Foods and Their Adulteration. 
Encyclopedia. — International. 

CHAPTER XVII.— MILK. 

Winslow, K. — The Production and Handling of Clean Milk. 

Ros ; nau, M. J.— The Milk Question. 

Wing, Henry H. — Milk and Its Products. 

Sherman, Henry C. — Food Products. 

Harrington, Charles. — Practical Hygiene. 

Buchanan, E. D. and R. E. — Household Bacteriology. 

Conn, H. W. — Agricultural Bacteriology. 

Conn, H. W. — Storrs Agricultural Experiment Station, Report 1895— 

Bacteria in the Dairy. 
Leffmann and Beam. — Food Analysis. 
Bulletin No. 161, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Animal 

Industry. — A Study of the Bacteria which Survive Pasteurization. 
Bulletin No. 104, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Animal 

Industry. — Medical Milk Commission and the Production of Cer- 
tified Milk in the United States. 
Bulletin No. 107, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Animal 

Industry. — The Extra Cost of Producing Clean Milk. 
Farmers Bulletin, No. 363, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, 

D. C— The Use of Milk as Food. 
Farmers Bulletin, No. 413, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, 

D. C— The Care of Milk and Its Use in the Home. 
Farmers Bulletin, No. 63, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, 

D. C. — The Care of Milk on the Farm. 



320 FOOD INDUSTRIES 

CHAPTER XVIII.— MILK PRODUCTS. 
Van Slyke and Publow. — The Science and Practice of Cheese-making. 
Wing, Henry H. — Milk and Its Products. 
Wiley, Harvey W. — Foods and Their Adulteration. 
Leffmann and Beam. — Food Analysis. 

Luchsinger. — History of a Great Industry. Address at the State His- 
torical Society of Wisconsin. 
The National Geographic Magazine, December, 1910. — A North Holland 

Cheese Market. 
Bulletin No. 13, Part First, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Division 

of Chemistry. — Dairy Products. 
Bulletin No. 203, New York Agricultural Experiment Station, Geneva, 

N. Y. — A Study of Enzymes in Cheese. 
Bulletin No. 219, New York Agricultural Experiment Station, Geneva, 

N. Y. — Some of the Compounds Present in American Cheddar 

Cheese. 
Bulletin No. 236, New York Agricultural Experiment Station, Geneva,. 

N. Y. — Conditions Affecting Chemical Changes in Cheese-making, 
Bulletin No. 237, New York Agricultural Experiment Station, Geneva, 

N. Y.— The Role of the Lactic Acid Bacteria in the Manufacture 

and in the Early Stages of Ripening of Cheddar Cheese. 
Farmers Bulletin, No. 487, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, 

D. C. — Cheese and Its Economical Uses in the Diet. 

CHAPTERS XIX AND XX.— PRESERVATION OF FOODS. 

Appert, Nicholas. — The Art of Preserving All Kinds of Animal and Veg- 
etable Substances. 

Duckwall, E. W. — Canning and Preserving. 

Thresh and Porter. — Preservatives in Food and Food Examination. 

Rideal, Samuel. — Disinfection and the Preservation of Foods. 

Wiley, Harvey W. — Foods and Their Adulteration. 

Green, Mary E. — Food Products of the World. 

Bulletin No. 13, Part Eighth, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Division 
of Chemistry. — Canned Vegetables. 

Bulletin No. 151, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Chem- 
istry. — The Canning of Foods. 

Farmers Bulletin, No. 375, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, 
D. C— The Care of Food in the Home. 

Farmers Bulletin, No. 359, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, 
D. C. — Canning Vegetables in the Home. 

Farmers Bulletin, No. 521, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, 
D. C. — Canning Tomatoes at Home and in Club Work. 

Farmers Bulletin, No. 203, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, 
D. C. — Canned Fruit, Preserves and Jellies. 



FOOD INDUSTRIES 32 1 

Farmers Bulletin, No. 291, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, 
D. C. — Evaporation of Apples. 

CHAPTER XXL— TEA, COFFEE AND COCOA. 

Freeman and Chandler. — The World's Commercial Products. 

Thorpe. — Dictionary of Applied Chemistry. 

Ward, Artemas. — The Grocers Encyclopedia. 

Harrington, Charles. — Practical Hygiene. 

Fowler, E. J. — Bacteriological and Enzyme Chemistry. 

Whymper, R. — Cocoa and Chocolate ; Their Chemistry and Manufacture. 

Harris, W. B. — Paper on Coffee as Affected by the Food and Drugs Act. 

Count Rumford. — Essay on The Excellent Qualities of Coffee and the 
Art of Making it in the Highest Perfection. 

Leffmann and Beam. — Food Analysis. 

Pan-American Union Bulletin, 1912. — The Cacao of the World. 

The National Geographic Magazine, October, 191 1. — A Visit to a Brazilian 
Coffee Plantation. 

Bulletin No. 13, Part Seventh, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Wash- 
ington, D. C. — Tea, Coffee and Cocoa Preparations. 

Farmers Bulletin, No. 301, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, 
D. C. — Home Grown Tea. 

Trade Paper. — The Tea and Coffee Trade Journal, New York. 

Trade Paper.— The Spice Mill. Spice Mill Publishing Co., New York. 

CHAPTER XXIL— SPICES AND CONDIMENTS. 
Ridley, Henry N. — Spices. 

Gibbs, W. M. — Spices and How to Know Them. 
Freeman and Chandler. — The World's Commercial Products. 
Bailey, E. H. S. — The Source, Chemistry and Use of Food Products. 
Leffmann and Beam.— Food Analysis. 
Wiley, Harvey W. — Foods and Their Adulteration. 
Ward, Artemas. — The Grocers Encyclopedia. 
Conn, H. W. — Bacteria, Yeasts and Molds in the Home. 
Hoffman and Evans. — Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry. 

The Use of Spices as Preservatives. 
Bulletin No. 13, Part Second, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Division 

of Chemistry. — Spices and Condiments 
Trade Paper.— The Spice Mill. Spice Mill Publishing Co., New York. 



INDEX. 



Acid phosphate of lime 119 

Adulteration. . . .44, 46, 48, 73, 78 
84, 101, 158, 179, 191, 
202, 215, 258, 278, 293, 
299, 311 

Albumins 13 

Albuminoids 13, 14 

Alcoholic beverages ..... .169-191 

adulteration 179, 191 

brewing 1 71-179 

cider 189 

classification 169 

distilled liquors 186-189 

koumiss 191 

vinegar 190, 191 

wine industry 181-186 

Ale 180 

Allspice 308 

Alum 28, 29, 101, 117 

Animal foods 205-223 

beef extracts ....210-212,231 

eggs 220-223 

fish 213-215 

internal organs 212-213 

meat 205-210 

poultry 218-220 

shellfish 215-218 

Baking powders ........ .114-118 

Barley 48, 49 

Beef extracts 210-212, 231 

Beer (see Brewing) 

Bicarbonate of soda 1 19-122 

Biscuit industry 104-110 

Bolter 70 

Bone-black filters 155 

Brandy 187 

Breadmaking 86-104 

adulteration 101 

aerated bread 103, 104 

leavened bread 88 

losses -in fermentation... 102 



Breadmaking — (Continued) 

primitive methods 86-88 

salt-rising bread 95 

souring and its preven- 
tion 100, 101 

steps in breadmaking. . .96-98 

yeast preparations 93~95 

Breakfast foods 79-84 

Brewing 171-180 

Butter 193-198 

Caff ein 286, 294, 300 

Cane syrup 1 58 

Canning industry 271-278 

adulteration 278 

containers 275-277 

historical 271, 272 

meat products 275 

processes 272-274 

success of canning 274 

Carbohydrates 7-10 

classification 7 

formation 8 

occurrence 8 

properties 9 

Cassava 125, 126 

Cassia 307 

Caviar 214 

Cellulose 9 

Centrifuge 144 

Cereals 38-49 

barley 48-49 

biological origin 38 

composition 39 

Indian corn 39~44 

oats 47, 48 

rice 44-47 

use in our country 38 

Champagne 185 

Cheese 253-258 

Chocolate 299 

Cider 189 



3^4 



FOOD INDUSTRIES 



Cinnamon 307 

Clams 217 

Clotting 15 

Cloves 308 

Coagulation 15 

Cocoa 294-300 

adulteration 299 

as a beverage 300 

cultivation 295 

historical 294 

manufacture 296-299 

physiological effect 300 

Coconut oil 204 

Coffee 287-294 

adulteration 293 

as a beverage 294 

cultivation 289 

extracts 294 

historical 287 

manufacture 280-293 

physiological effect 300 

substitutes 85 

Cold storage 261-263 

Condiments 301-305 

Cordials 189 

Cornmeal 42 

Corn syrup (see Glucose) 

Cottonseed oil 202, 203 

Crabs 218 

Crackers (see Biscuit industry) 

Cream of tartar 1 18, 1 19 

Curdling 15 

Curry powder 304 

Dextrin 9, 132, 133 

Diffusion battery 150-152 

Diseases from impure 

milk . . 230-240 

Diseases from impure water 23 

Diseases of animals 208,209 

Distillation 30 

Domestic filters 31 

Drying 250-261 



Eggs 220-223 

Emulsification 12 

Extractives 15 

Fats 192-204 

butter 193-198 

butter substitutes 199-201 

composition 10, 11 

edible oils 201-204 

extraction 192 

occurrence 11, 12 

properties 12 

purification 193 

Fermentation 177-179, 183, 184 

Fish 213-215 

Flour 64-77 

adulteration 73 

bleaching jt> 

entire wheat 75 

gluten yy 

Graham 74, 75 

hard wheat J2> 

prepared 74 

soft wheat 73 

testing 72 

utilization of 86-112 

Food principles 5-7 

Foot-and-mouth disease 208 

Fructose 8 

Fruits and vegetables 159-166 

composition 161 

cultivation 162 

definition and classification 160 
handling on the farm. . . . 1162 
importance in the diet... 159 

marketing 165 

transportation and storage 164 

Galactose 8 

Gelatin 230 

Gin 189 

Ginger 310 

Globulin 13, 14 

Glucose 8, 133-135 

Glutelins 13, 14 



FOOD INDUSTRIES 



325 



Glycogen 9 

Glycoproteins 13, 14 

Grist mill 61 

Haemoglobins 13, 14 

Hand-stones 58 

Hominy 42 

Hydrolysis 10, 14, 15 

Ice cream 251 

Ice supply 33 

Indian corn 39~44 

Jellies and jams 166 

Koumiss 191 

Lactose 9 

Lard 228 

Leavening agents 1 13-122 

Lemon extract 311 

Lobsters 218 

Macaroni 1 10-1 12 

Mace 310 

Maize (see Indian corn) 

Malting 172-175 

Maltose 9 

Marmalade 166 

Meat 205-210 

Meat products 275 

Milk 233-246 

certified 245 

composition 234, 235 

diseases from milk 239 

importance of supply .... 236 

modified 246 

necessity for cleanliness . . 240 

pasteurization 245 

producer 241 

safeguarding the supply. . 240 

source 233 

sterilization 242 

testing 242 



Milk products 247-258 

artificially soured milk. . . 253 

butter 193-198 

by-products of butter. 252, 253 

cheese 253-258 

concentrated milk 249 

condensed milk 247 

evaporated milk 249 

ice cream 251 

market cream 250, 251 

milk powders 250 

Milling- 
modern processes 64-77 

old processes 58-63 

Mineral waters 33~37 

artificial 36 

classification 33 

natural 33-36 

Molasses 156, 157 

Mussels 218 

Mustard 304 

Nncleo-proteins 13, 14 

Nutmeg 310 

Nuts 166-168 

Oatmeal 47 

Oats 47, 48 

Oleomargarine 199-201 

Oleo oil 227 

Olive oil .201, 202 

Oysters 215-217 

Packing house 224-232 

growth and breadth 224 

historical 224 

processes and by-prod- 
ucts 225-232 

Peanut oil 203 

Pepper 302-304 

Pestle and mortar 59 

Phospho-proteins 13, 14 

Porter 180 

Poultry 218-220 



326 



FOOD INDUSTRIES 



Preservation of foods. .. .250-278 

alcohol 268 

canning 271-278 

cooling 261-263 

drying 259-261 

preservatives 268 

salting 264 

smoking 265 

sugaring 263 

use of fats and oils 267 

use of spices 267 

Preservatives 268-270 

Proteins 13-16 

classification . . 13 

composition 13 

hydrolysis 14 

occurrence 13 

properties 15 

Purifier 69 

Quern 59 

Renovated butter 199 

Rice 44-47 

Rum 187 

Rye 77, 78 

Saccharine 269 

Salting 264 

Salt rising bread 95 

Samp 42 

Saponification 12 

Sausages 231 

Scallops 217 

Scalper 67 

Semolina 77 

Shellfish 215-218 

Smoking 265, 266 

Sodium chloride 301 

Spices 305-311 

Starch 123-132 

corn 127-132 

potato 124, 125 

properties 123 



Starch — (Continued) 

source of supply 124 

tapioca 125, 126 

uses 123, 124 

Sucrose (see Sugar) 

Sugar 136-158 

beet sugar industry. . .145-152 
cane sugar industry. . .138-145 
comparison of cane and 

beet 137 

historical 136-138 

refining 152-155 

source 8, 9, 136 

Sugaring 263 

Sweetbreads 213 

Tallow 227 

Tartaric acid 119 

Tea 279-287 

adulteration 286 

as a beverage 286 

classification 281 

composition of the bever- 
age 287 

cultivation of the 

plant 270-281 

historical 279 

manufacture 283-286 

physiological effect 300 

rules for tea-making 286 

Trichina 208 

Tuberculosis 209 

Vacuum pan 142-144 

Vanilla extract 311 

Vegetables (see Fruits) 

Vinegar 190, 191, 304 

Water 17-37 

atmospheric 19 

classifications 17, 19 

contamination 21, 22 

danger of impure water. . 23 

ice supply 33 

importance of 15 



FOOD INDUSTRIES 327 

Water — (Continued) Wheat — (Continued) 

j udging a supply 32 origin 50 

mineral waters 33 structure of grain 54-50 

subsoil 20 value 56, 57 

surface ... 20 varieties 57, 58 

Wheat 50-77 Whiskey 187-189 

cultivation 53, 54 Wine industry 181-186 

distribution 51-53 

milling 58-77 Yeast 80-95 



Household Chemistry 

for the use of 
Students in Household Arts 



BY 



Hermann T. Vulte, Ph.D., F. C. S. 

Assistant Professor of Household Chemistry in 
Teachers College, Columbia University 



CONTENTS. — Introduction ; Chapter I. — Outline of Organic 
Chemistry; Chapter II. — Atmosphere and Ventilation; Chapter 
III— Water; Chapter IV.— Metals ; Chapter V.— Glass, Pottery 
and Porcelain; Chapter VI. — Fuels; Chapter VII. — Carbohy- 
drates ; Chapter VIII. — Fruit and Fruit Juices ; Chapter IX. — 
Fats ; Chapter X. — Proteins ; Chapter XI. — Baking Powders ; 
Chapter XII. — Tea, Coffee, Chocolate and Cocoa; Chapter 
XIII. — Ferments and Preservatives ; Chapter XIV. — Disinfect- 
ants and Disinfection; Chapter XV. — Cleansing Agents; Chapter 
XVI. — Volumetric and Gravimetric Analysis; Chapter XVII. — 
Reagents. Appendix. Useful Tables. 

Pages VI + 234 (12 mo.) 
Price, $1.50, Postpaid 



The Chemical Publishing Co. 



EASTON, PENNA. 



LAUNDERING 

BY 
L. Ray Balderston 

Instructor in Laundering, Teachers College, Columbia University, 
New York City. 

2nd EDITION 

Useful to Housewives 

Helpful to Teachers 

Text Book to Classes 



"This manual on Laundering is by Miss 
Balderston, who is an authority the country over 
on this subject. How to remove stains; how 
to set colors; washing woolens, sweaters, etc; 
laundry equipment, various types of washing 
machines, cost, etc.; all these are discussed, and 
explicit directions given." — Philadelphia Public 
Ledger. 



Published by 

L. R. BALDERSTON 

1224 Cherry Street, Philadelphia, Pa. 

Price: $1.25 postpaid For sale by all book dealers 



